A CHRONOLOGY OF DATES & EVENTS RELATING PRIMARILY TO
THE UNFOLDING STORY OF THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION
gathered by Christopher Page © cpage 2008INTRODUCTION
History is a process of story telling in which the story-teller attempts to understand and find meaning in the apparently random events of the past. A chronological list of dates is not history. At best it can be a skeleton in which the stories that make up real history may be oriented.
However, I am a “five” on the Enneagram. One of the fundamental illusions to which “fives” like to cling is that if we acquire enough information, we will come to understand life. Consequently, over the years of my study and reading, I have accumulated a long list of somewhat random historical dates, events and facts. Some of these pieces of information are important, some trivial. They have not been accumulated through systematic scholarly study, but rather through years of random reading.
My major areas of interest are the stories of my Christian tradition and the development of Christian spirituality. So this chronology centres around issues that relate primarily to Christian faith in its external manifestation as an institution known as the church. But it also attempts to raise up some of the important names in the inner spiritual Christian tradition that breathes life and light into the vessel of the church.
The fact that I am a lifelong Anglican and a Canadian accounts for some of the selections whose appearance in this list may seem odd or even a little perverse.
I am aware that Christian faith did not emerge in a historical vacuum. So I have attempted to include some dates that reach beyond the narrow confines of Christian faith. I have tried at times, though only in the slightest manner, to acknowledge other faith traditions and events in world history that correspond in time to major events in the Christian world.
Needless to say, all these dates and facts have not enabled me to understand anything. But, I believe that, as an aid to studying the great stories that make up the history, particularly of the church and Christian faith, this outline might be useful. I am not a historian, so there are no doubt mistakes in this chronology. Important items may well have been omitted and there may be some unnecessary repetition.
As I cannot completely surrender my conviction that accumulating accurate information may one day lead to some kind of insight, any additions or corrections that should be made would be appreciated and might be sent to christopherpage@telus.net.
June 2008
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WORLD HISTORY BEFORE THE COMMON ERA
up to 10,000 – Paleolithic Period (“Old Stone Age”) 40,000 – earliest specimens of modern humans (homo sapiens) found in Africa 40,000 – first people migrate to America 20,000 – cave art flourishes in France & Spain 15,000 – cave art practiced in Brazil 10,000 – end of last ice age 9000 – beginnings of settled farming in Asia & Africa 7000 – walls of Jericho built 6500 – farming in Europe 6000 – rice cultivated in Thailand 4000 – first use of metal 3100 – Upper & Lower Egypt unite under King Menes 3000 – First Sumerian cities. Invention of writing (in Tigris, Euphrates, & Nile regions) 3000–2000 – Early Helladic Period 2800- pyramids of Giza begun 2700 – Gilgamesh reigns at Uruk 2500 – Minoan civilization in Crete
2500–600 – early Vedic period – Vedas– large corpus of ancient Indian texts circulating in oral form in Sanskrit, written down in 2nd c. BCE, supposed to have been directly revealed
2150-1650 – Middle Bronze Age 2100 – rise of Babylon
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2100 – 1150 Middle & Late Minoan Period
2000 – first Phoenecian cities
2000 – 1500 – Abraham migrates from Ur in Mesopotamia (part of modern Iraq) to Canaan on eastern shore of Mediterranean Sea; he, his son Isaac & grandson Jacob become patriarchs of the Jewish people. Famine forces migration to Egypt.
1900 – epic of Gilgamesh in Mesopotamia c. 1800 – Joseph in Egypt – Israelites enslaved in Egypt 1750-1450 – Bronze Age
1728-1686 – Code of Hammurabi – one of the earliest sets of recorded laws, preface decreed sun would shine over the people only if king & the mighty did not oppress their vulnerable subjects
1600 – Mycenaean civilization in Greece
1500 – growth of Hindu religion in India. Freedom from material world through purification & elimination of personal identity. Sacred writings: Vedas (including Upanishads) & Bhagavad Gita
1280-1240 – possible date for Moses leading Hebrews from Egypt. For 40 years wander in Sinai desert. Moses receives Torah, including Ten Commandments on Mt. Sinai, dies on east bank of Jordan R. before re-enter Canaan, the Promised Land
c. 1200 – Trojan War between forces from mainland of Greece & defenders of city of Troy in what is now Turkey
1200–1050 – occupation & settlement of Canaan
1020 – Monarchy established with Saul as first king (United Kingdom 1020 – 931 – domination of Canaan by Israel which becomes nation)
1012-972 – King David reigns over Hebrews 1000 – Jerusalemmade capital of kingdom of David 960 – King Solomon (965-922) builds First Temple in Jerusalem c.931-722 – writing of much of biblical texts
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930 – Kingdom divided into Israel (North) under Jeroboam, rebels, capital Samaria, ten tribes, ended 722 & Judah (South) under Rehoboam, David’s line, capital Jerusalem one tribe ended 586 (I Kings 12)
926 – Egyptian pharaoh Shishak invades Canaan, sacks Jerusalem, devastates 150 towns in Israel & Judah & destroys ancient Canaanite stronghold. Canaanite culture never recovers, leaving Israel free to expand into old Canaanite territories
922 – death of Solomon
900-600 – Late Vedic period – Brahmanical religion develops
900-200 – “Axial Age” (Karl Jaspers) four great world traditions come into being: China – Confucianism & Daoism; India – Hinduism & Buddhism; Israel – Monotheism; Greece – philosophical rationalism
885-874 – King Omri built capital in Samaria 874-853 – Omri’s son, Ahab built magnificent ivory palace in Samaria & married
Jezebel, a Phoenician princess who imported cult of Phoenician Baal into Israel
875 – Jezebel marries Ahab of Israel
859 – Assyrian Shalmaneser III comes to throne
853 – Ahab, king of Israel contributes chariot squadron to army that marches against Assyria & is defeated at battle of Qarqar on river Orontes
841 – Assyria defeats Damascus & becomes master of region – Israel as a favoured vassal, enjoys period of peace & prosperity
800 – rise of Greek city-states 800–300 – eleven major Upanishads written (literally “sitting down beside”), part of
Vedas
8th century – art of literacy spreads through Semitic world & eastern Mediterranean – scribes begin to develop royal archive to preserve ancient stories & customs – by end of 8c. Pentateuch probably committed to writing
786-746 – King Jeroboam II rules Israel prospering as vassal of powerful Assyrian empire
c.780 – Amos, shepherd from Tekoa, experiences call of God to prophesy to Jereboam of Israel
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776 – First Olympic Games
770-700 – Isaiah prophet in Judah
753 – legendary founding of Rome on bank of Tiber River, Roman Empire survived more than 1,200 years until CE 476
750–612 – height of Assyrian Empire 750–550 – Hebrew prophetic revolution 750 ? – The Iliad and the Odyssey Homer’s epic recounting story of Trojan War 745 – Tiglath-pileser III becomes king of Assyria & subjugates Babylon 740 – year that King Uzziah died (Isaiah 6:1) year of Isaiah’s vision
738 – Assyrian army marches into Israel after it is left in disarray following death of Jeroboam III & subdues its northern territories. Tiglath-pileser adopts Aramean language & script to unite growing kingdom
734 – King Pekah of Israel & King Rezin of Damascus enter coalition to oppose Assyria’s westward advance, King Ahaz of Judah refuses to join so kings of Israel & Damascus send army against Judah who asks Tiglath-pileser for protection thus making Judah a vassal of state of Assyria who sweep down on Damascus, execute king Rezin & storm down Mediterranean coast destroying any city that seems about to defect. Pekah is put to death by Hoshea, the son of Elah, who usurps the throne
724 – Tiglath-pileser III dies, King Hoshea of Israel joins other vassal states in resistance to Assyria refusing to pay tribute & appealing to Egypt for support. Shalmaneser V becomes king of Assyria, throws Hoshea in prison & besieges Samaria
722-720 – Assyrians under king SargonIII crush Israel (North); king Hoshea is made prisoner; 10 tribes dispersed (II Kings 17), end of Northern Kingdom of Israel
715 – Hezekiah becomes king of Judah 705 – Sennacharib becomes king of Assyria & Hezekiah enters into anti-Assyrian
coalition & prepares Jerusalem for war
701 – Sennacharib arrives in Judah with huge army & begins to systematically devastate countryside until finally lays siege to Jerusalem. Seems city cannot survive until at last moment it is miraculously delivered but Hezekiah, who had inherited a thriving kingdom, is left with only tiny city-state of Jerusalem
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7c. in Israel – watershed that sees beginnings of religion of Judaism
687-642 – Manassah son of Hezekiah loyal vassal of Assyrians, allowing Judah to prosper
665 – Assyria controls Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt – drive Israelites from homeland
660-538 – Zarathustra, Persian prophet founder of Zoroastrianism 656 – Pharaoh Psammetichus I forces Assyrian troops to leave territories of old northern
kingdom of Israel 622 – Josiah begins extensive work to restore Solomon’s temple during which high
priest Hilkiah finds safer torah (the book of the law) 621 – Hilkiah finds Deuteronomy text – editing of Hebrew scriptural material 612 – Ninevah destroyed by Babylonians & Medes
611 – Pharaoh Necho III marches through Palestine to come to aid of Assyrian king. Josiah intercepts Egyptian army at Megiddo & is killed, none of his reforms
survives, Judah reduced to bit player in struggle between Egypt & new Babylonian empire
605 – Babylon conquers Egypt, now rules Judah
605-530 – Lao Tzu Chinese author of Tao Te Ching, attempt to live according to “the Way” which governs the universe
601 – king Jehoiakim of Judah revolts against Babylonian domination
6 & 5c.- Upanishads (Hindu teachings) written down
597 – young King Jehoiachin of Judah submits to Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, is deported with 8,000 into exile in Babylon
587 – Zedekiah, Babylonian appointed ruler of Judah rebels
586 – Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar conquer Judah (Southern Kingdom), destroy Temple & raze city; 5,000 Jews exiled (until 538), leaving only poorest people & those who had defected to Babylon in devastated land. During exile, Jews introduce Synagogue worship
581 – third group of exiles taken from Judah to Babylon
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580/570–c. 500 – Pythagoras – Presocratic philosopher emphasized interconnections in numbers, nature & human soul, natural & ethical worlds inseparable
563–483 – traditional dates of Buddha (Prince Siddhartha/Gautama) 560 estimated date of enlightenment under bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, India
559 – Cyrus becomes king of Persia (now southern Iran) which follows Babylon as major power
551-497 – Confucius established system of ethics that influenced Chinese culture placing high value on following traditional ways, learning & family relationships
547 – Cyrus conquers Media, invades Babylon & is welcomed as hero making him ruler of largest empire world ever seen including modern Iran, much of Turkey, Southern Russia, Afghanistan & Pakistan
540 – Phocaeans (on Carian Coast of Turkey near island of Samos) forced out of their city by Persian army, flee to Corsica, then to coast of Italy just South of Gulf of Sorrento where found city of Velia where soon after Paremenides was born
539 – Persian king Cyrus issues edict allowing Jews to return to homeland under leadership of Sheshbazzar. Most returnees born in exile – Judah was a bleak & alien land occupied now by Philistines, Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Arabs & Phoenicians – returnees call them all am ha-aretz (“the people of the land”) also reunite with fellow Israelites after absence of 70 years
530 – Pythagoras settles in Italy 521 – Darius becomes “Great King” of Persia (until 486) – Zerubbabel leader of Judean
community in Jerusalem
c.520 – Haggai & Zechariahprophesy
518-515 – some 50,000 Jews return from Babylon (part of modern Iraq); Temple rebuilt under Zerubbabel – the “Second Temple” – somewhat impoverished replacement of Great Temple destroyed in 587 – “Second Temple” lasts until 70 CE
c. 515-c.450 – Paremenides (b. in S. Italy) – Presocratic, extends Pythagoras insisting all that exists is unchanging & unifed, therefore, if something is changing, it is illusory, paves way for two-world view important for much mysticism
509 – Roman Republic founded
500 – oral transmission in India of Mahabharata epic. Not committed to writing until 1st centuries of CE – tells story of war between two sets of cousins, Kauravas & Pandavas in which Panadavas are victorious – sixth book eventually includes
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Bhagavad-Gita (‘The Song of the Lord’) – dialogue between Arjuna, the greatest warrior of the Pandava brothers & his friend Krishna – counters argument that worldly action incompatible with liberation by arguing that it is possible to be free of attachment to fruit of our actions
5c. – Buddhism & Jainism founded in India
c. 492-425 – Vardhamana Jnatruputra teacher in India known as Mahavria (“Great Hero”) whose followers known as Jains , taught ahimsa (“harmlessness”) because all living things consist of a jiva (“eternal soul”) & temporary physical body must be treated with courtesy & respect
c.492-424 – Empedocles 480 – Esther becomes Queen of Persia 480 – Buddha b.
469-399 – Socrates - Greek philosopher, teacher of Plato – question & answer teaching intended to deconstruct preconceptions making student realize knows nothing at which point true struggle to discover truth can being – criticism of democracy leads Athenians to execute him
460 – Parthenon temple built for Greek goddess Athena 458 – Ezra sent to Judah to resettle 450 – Roman Law first codified into Twelve Tables 450 – Parmenides meets young Socrates
450 – Buddha’s enlightenment & first sermon
445 – walls around Jerusalem rebuilt by Nehemiah, appointed Governor of Judah by Persian ruler Artaxerxes I
c.440 – death of prophet Malachi
427–347 – Plato Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle – theory that ideal Forms or Ideas such as Truth or the Good exist in a realm beyond material world. Everything in material world has an eternal unchanging form which cannot be experienced by senses but by power of reason residing in soul (psyche). Influence on Christian thinkers especially in Alexandria. Timaeus – supreme God not being among other beings but transcendent being itself = unchanging perfection (the good, the true & the beautiful) entirely above & beyond the world
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405 – Buddha d.
c.400 – completion of Torah
399 – Socrates executed, his student Plato (30 years old) is profoundly disillusioned by trial & death of his teacher & withdraws from public life
386 – Plato founds “The Academy” in Athens
384-322 – Aristotle, Greek philosopher disagreed with Plato – form & matter joined
356-323 – Alexander the Great, ruler of Greece conquers most of ancient world establishing Hellenistic rule – after Alexander’s conquests, people in eastern Mediterranean speak & write simplified Attic (classical Greek) known as Koine which becomes common language of all nations from 300 BCE until barbarians overrun Europe
347 – Plato dies, Aristotle leaves Athens
338 – Macedonians conquer Greece
336 – Alexander the Great age 22 succeeds father, Philip as king of Macedonia, northern part of which is known as Greece – becomes greatest general of ancient world
335 – Aristotle returns to Athens & establishes Lyceum
333 – Alexander the Great destroys army of Persian king Darius – beginning of new era of Hellenism (describes religion, science, politics, & art during transition from world of Antiquity to Christian era in Mediterranean & Near East)
332 – Alexander conquers Palestine – Hellenistic period proper to 167 BCE
323 – Alexander dies of malaria in Babylon, empire divided among generals: Ptolemy ruler of Egypt & Palestine, Selucus ruler of Syria & Babylon
c.300 – Buddhism arrives in SE Asia
300-200 – most of Hebrew Scriptures written
250 – Third Buddhist Council – Great Schism resulting in Theravada & Mahayana Buddhism
200’s & 100’s – Latin changed from spoken to highly developed literary language 285-246 – Ptolemy Philadelphus according to legend, responsible for Septuagint (LXX)
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- Greek translation of Hebrew Scriptures in Alexandria which had largest Jewish community in ancient world. Believed translation made under divine guidance & words of LXX as sacred to Jews as those of Hebrew original
240 – Buddhism introduced into Sri Lanka 214 – Great Wall of China completed 200 – Hebrew prophetic books completed 198 – Seluecids triumph over Ptolemies & become rulers of Palestine
175 – Antiochus IV (Epiphanes “God Manifest”) becomes king of Seleucid or Syrian Empire, tries to stamp out Judaism, provokes Jewish uprising under Mattathias &
five sons, most famous of whom was Judas, whose nickname was Maccabeus 167-63 – Hasmonean times
166–160 – Maccabean revolt frees Judea from Syria, December 164 Maccabees defeat Syrians & purify Temple (Hanukkah – Feast of Lights)
142-63 – Jews enjoy limited independence. Essene community at Qumran acts out a new “exodus” leaving behind a Jerusalem priesthood they regarded as corrupt to form a new “Israel” in desert. Understood universe to be battlefield between God & Satan – apocalyptic expectation of end of world. Saw themselves as one small community of light in vast Roman darkness
106 BCE–14 CE – Latin reaches highest level of development in Golden Age of Latin literature
100 – birth of Gaius Julius Caesar
100 – Beginnings Mahayana Buddhism
80 BCE–30 CE – Rabbi Hillel, greatest of Pharisees – essence of Torah not letter but spirit of law summed up in Golden Rule
75 – Colosseum built in Rome 73 – Gladiator Spartacus leads slave revolt, crushed by Pompey & Crassus 70-19 – Vergil, writer of The Aeneid 63-14 CE – Octavian First Emperor of Rome (in 27 BCE) beginning of Roman rule
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63 59
58 54 50
50 47
46 44 44
37
31
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- Roman troops under Pompey conquer Judea, entire eastern Mediterranean brought under pax Romana
– Julius Caesar appointed Consul in Rome after forming alliance with wealthy aristocrat Marcus Licinius Crassus & powerful General Gaeus Pompeii in First Triumvirate
– Caesar invades Gaul making Western Europe part of Roman Empire over 8 years
– Caesar invades Britain
– Caesar crosses Rubicon marking North Eastern border of Italy & heads to Rome embarking on Civil War (“the die is cast”) throughout North Africa & Spain, pursues rival Pompeii to Egypt where is presented with Pompeii’s head & takes Cleopatra as his mistress, returning with her to Rome (“I came; I saw; I conquered.”)
BCE-50 C.E. – Buddhism introduced into China
– Herod Antipater, half-Jew from Idumea south of Judea made governor of Judea & made Roman citizen by Julius Caesar
– Caesar appointed dictator for 10 years
(Feb.) – Caesar elected dictator for life
- Julius Caesar - Ides of March (March 15) murdered in Rome by Longinus & Brutus, four months later at celebration honouring one of Caesar’s military victories, comet streaked across sky, taken as sign Caesar was a god. Roman Senate officially declared him the divine Julius. After his death succeeded by nephew & adopted son Octavius/Octavian (later Augustus) who was 19 & in Greece when he was made Caesar’s heir (ruled 27 BCE to 14 CE)
– Herod the Great, Jew, begins rule as king of Judea, Idumea, Samaria under Roman authority (to 4 CE) – dual taxation: one for Rome, one for priestly aristocracy. Many resisted payment resulting in frequent open revolts
– Octavian & Marcus Agrippa defeat Antony (who had married Cleopatra, who had been Julius Caesar’s mistress, & named her illegitimate son by Caesar as Julius’ true heir. Antony & Cleopatra commit suicide, her son is murdered & Egypt becomes part of the Roman Empire) at battle of Actium, begins Roman Empire
– Octavian becomes first Emperor of Rome (ruled 27 BCE–14 CE) granted name Caesar Augustus (“Revered One”), founder of “Pax Romana,” issues in era of unprecedented prosperity
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21 – Agrippa marries Julia 20 BCE–50 CE – Philo Alexandrian Jew drew from Platonist tradition, Stoicism & neo-
Pythagoreanism to create fusion of active or virtuous life & contemplative life
20 – Herod the Great begins rebuilding Temple from ruins of Solomon’s temple to win favour with Jews
18 BCE – Augustus institutes moral campaign to restore traditional family values in Rome while, behind the scenes, carrying on adulterous lifestyle
14 BCE – Tiberius succeeds Augustus 10 BCE – Agrippa I (b.), grandson of Herod the Great 9 BCE – Tiberius marries Julia
6 BCE – 70 CE – AGE OF JESUS AND THE APOSTLES – COMMON ERA
6-4 BCE – Jesus’ birth before end of reign of King Herod the Great
6 BCE – Territories of Judea, Samaria & Idumea come under direct imperial control as Roman Province of Judea – sacrifices performed in temple as required by Torah plus sacrifices required in honour of Rome & emperor, tension around accommodation to Rome
Sadducees = religious movement devoted to strict conservative & literal interpretation of Torah, rejected all traditions not in written law, came mostly from great priestly families, less devout & more political than Pharisees.
Pharisees = Jewish sect, rigid observers of Law, undue attachment to oral tradition of their rabbis led to extravagant and artificial casuistry
5 BCE-64 CE – life of St. Paul born in Tarsus, prosperous capital of Roman Province of Cilicia, now southeastern Turkey
4 – Judas, Son of brigand chief Hezekiah leads tax revolt among people of town of Sepphoris, few kms. from Nazareth in Galilee – proclaimed Judas king. Romans conquer town & sell people into slavery
4 BCE-29 CE – life of Jesus Christ 4 BCE – Herod’s kingdom divided among sons: Archelaus - Judea, Samaria, Idumea
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(4 BCE – 6 CE), Herod Antipas – Galilee & Perea (4 BCE – 39 CE), Philip – NE of Sea of Galilee (4 BCE – 33/34 CE) all answerable to a Roman governor
2 BCE – Julia banished
COMMON ERA
5 – Augustus adopts Tiberius as son & successor
14 – death of Augustus Caesar (76 years old) had only one daughter, no surviving grandsons first emperor of Rome, adopted son of Julius Caesar, reign (44 BCE – 14 CE) considered golden age of literature in Ro me, period of peace, succeeded by Tiberius his adopted stepson who ruled to 37 CE. After his death Augustus declared a god by Senate in Rome
19 – Death of Germanicus trial of Piso
26 – 36 – Pontius Pilate Roman procurator of Judea, Samaria & Idumea
27-30 – public ministry of Jesus of Nazareth
28 – Agrippina marries Gnaeus Ahenobarbarus (consul 32 CE) by whom she bears Nero, later marries Crispus Passienus & finally her uncle Claudius
c.30 – Jesus executed under Roman Emperor Tiberius by Pontius Pilate governor of Judea
30-40 – 2 types of religious groups emerge around Jesus’ memory: 1. Jesus movements adhered to memory of Jesus as founding teacher, collected his sayings & recounted his deeds (Palestine & Southern Syria) 2. Christ congregations –
remembered Jesus as divine being whose death & resurrection promised salvation (Northern Syria, Asia Minor, Greece) – Greek speakers
c.35 – conversion of Paul (Acts 9)
?36-?65 period of oral tradition between time of Jesus & first gospel. Christians disperse throughout Judea & Samaria (Acts 8:1ff), Peter leads new Christian church, moves headquarters to Rome
c.35-c.107 – Ignatius of Antioch– Christocentric mystic 37 – Nero born, mother Agrappina sister to eccentric emperor Caligula 37-41 – reign of Gaius Caligula, emperor of Rome declared himself god
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38 – Agrippa I travels through Alexandria where there are violent anti-Jewish riots
39/40 – Philo of Alexandria (15/10 BCE-45/50) leads delegation of Jews from Alexandria to emperor Caligula (37-41) in Rome. Jews of Alexandria subject to Roman pogrom Philo & companions hoped to end. Caligula cut Philo off as he spoke. Philo later told his fellow ambassadors God would punish Caligula, who was soon assassinated
Philo was a theologian who sought to harmonize Jewish theology with Greek (largely Platonic) philosophy. Many ideas found in later Christian theology present in Philo, though sometimes in a form unacceptable to Church. Philo taught that Greek philosophy had been plagiarized from Moses, believed Greek translation of OT (Septuagint, dating from 3rd c. BCE) was divinely inspired. Philo referred to the Logos (the residence of the Platonic Ideas) as the first- begotten Son of God – though, in his view, the Logos was definitely below God, distinct from the Godhead. He interpreted the theophanies of OT as appearances of the Logos (as for the Fathers they were Christophanies). Stressed allegorical interpretation of scripture, though this must be balanced. With later Eastern mystical theologians, Philo discussed incomprehensibility of God in essence, & how knowledge of God can be attained in an ecstatic state
In some ways, Philo more akin to Gnostics & Manichaeans. Like Plato, Philo viewed body as prison for soul. distinctly non-Christian view of matter
40 – Paul goes to Jerusalem to consult with Peter
41 – assassination of Caligula, succeeded by uncle Claudius
41–54 – Claudius Roman Emperor who expelled Jews & Jewish Christians from Rome in 49, they returned after his death in 54
41-44 – according to Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea writing in his Ecclesiastical History, St. Mark came to Egypt between first & third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius returned to Alexandria 20 years later to preach & evangelize
43 – Roman Emperor Claudius invades Britain, conquers Celtic tribes
43 – Barnabas brings Saul to Antioch (Acts 11:25,26)
44 – persecution of early church at Jerusalem by Herod Agrippa, executes James, brother of John (Acts 12:1-3)
44 (Aug) – Agrippa at seaside palace of Caesarea for annual celebration of emperor’s birthday, declared a god & dies (Acts 12:23). His death is a disaster for Jews, leading to increasingly strained relations between Jews & Rome
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45 – church in Antioch sends famine relief to Christians of Judea by Saul & Barnabas (Acts 11:29)
46-48 – Paul’s first missionary journey 47-48 – Paul & Barnabas on Cyprus 48 – Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:1f) 48-54 – Galatians – Paul
49? – Paul in southern Galatia 49 – according to Roman historian Suetonius (70-122) Claudius “expelled the Jews from
Rome since they rioted constantly at the instigation of Chrestus.” (Claudius, xxv) 50-51 – Paul in Corinth
50-52 – Paul’s second missionary journey
New Testament closes as first generation of pneumatic Christians, including Spirit- filled apostles were ending their lives. Crises of Christianity centered on questions of whether such mystical church could maintain unity in face of possible conflicting revelations or fresh revelations that might be inconsistent with traditions of founding generations & whether pneumatic Christians could co-exist with non- pneumatics as there began to be Christians born into faith
50 – I Thessalonians - Paul
51 – II Thessalonians – Deutero-Pauline
53 – Nero marries Octavia
53-57 – Paul’s third missionary journey
54 – Emperor Claudius poisoned before his son Britannicus came of age to succeed his father. 16 year old Nero declared emperor (reigned to 68)
54-55 – Paul in prison in Ephesus 55 – Nero poisons Britannicus just before fourteenth birthday 55 – I Corinthians - Paul 55-56 – II Corinthians - Paul
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56 – Paul arrested in Jerusalem for trying to take Greeks & non-Jews into temple (Acts 22)
57 – Romans - Paul
58 – Paul arrested, imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 25:4)
59 – Nero kills his mother, Agrippina
59-60 – Philippians - Paul
60 – Paul arrives in Rome where he is imprisoned & eventually dies
60 – Andrewmartyred by crucifixion in Achaia (Greece)
61 – Ephesians – Deutero-Pauline
61 – Colossians – Deutero -Pauline
61 – Philemon – Paul
62 – death of James, brother of Jesus
62 – Philippians – Paul
62 – Nero kills his wife Octavia & marries Popeiia Sabina
63 – Popeiia (Nero’s wife) bears daughter who dies, after which Nero kills all royal family
63 – completion of Temple of Herod the Great
64 (June 29) – traditional date of Peter’s martyrdom
64 (July 19) – Great Fire starts & burns for 6 days, three quarters of Rome destroyed, persecution under Emperor Nero (54-68), who uses Christians (a still almost unheard of Jewish sect) as scapegoats to blame for blaze, when suspicion is directed at him for building his own magnificent temple on land cleared by the great fire
64 – church in Alexandria fo unded by St. Mark, disciple of Peter
65 – plot to assassinate Nero fails – assassins forced to commit suicide including Seneca, leaving Rome in state of fear & suspicion
66-73 – The Great Revolt – Jewish zealots revolt against Rome, holding Roman forces at bay for four years. Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai, Hillel’s greatest pupil & leader of
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Pharisees wanted no part in violence, realized Jews could not defeat Rome, argued preservation of religion was more important than national independence. When advice rejected had himself smuggled out of Jerusalem in coffin & went to Roman camp of Vespasian where got permission to live with scholars in Javne which became new capital of Jewish religion after destruction of temple
67 – Paul martyred on road from Rome to Ostia. Peter martyred, crucified upside down in Rome
67 – General Vespasian of Rome conquers Galilee
67-68 – Linus succeeds Peter – 2nd “Pope”
68 – Qumran (Essenes?) community destroyed by Rome (site of Dead Sea Scrolls found 1949)
68 – Nero (age 38) orders servant to kill him after fleeing Rome in fear, launches year of civil war in Rome
68 – Galba emperor of Rome 69 – Otho emperor of Rome 69 – Vitellius emperor of Rome
c.69 – St. Ignatius (c.35-c.107) becomes bishop of Antioch, perhaps succeeding Euodius who may have been first successor to Peter. Ignatius first to use the word “catholic” – “Wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic church.” “Let that be considered a valid Eucharist over which the bishop presides, or one to whom he commits it.”
69–79 – Vespasian, Roman Emperor who put down Jewish revolt & built Colosseum 69-155 – Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, tried to avoid arrest by going into hiding but was
betrayed by two slaves & became model martyr
70 – Jerusalem is burned, Second Temple destroyed by troops of Emperor Titus, only West wall, “Wailing” Wall left standing. Heart of Jewish religion shifts from temple to text. Beginning of period of rabbinical Judaism in which rabbis focus on exegesis of Scriptures, especially Torah. Priestly class wiped out & Pharisees emerge as dominant group in Palestinian Judaism. Divide between Christianity & Judaism deepens. Virtual end of Christian Church in Jerusalem after which political centre of Christianity shifts to Rome
70-90 – Synoptic Gospels
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70 – Gospel of Mark interweaving material from sayings known as Q (from German Quelle = “source”)
72 – according to tradition, Thomas stabbed to death by Brahman priests in Mylapore, India
73 – garrison at Masada chooses to die by suicide rather than surrender to Rome, thus ending revolt begun 66
75-100 – James 79 – Hardrian born in Spain 79–81 – Titus, Roman Emperor, destroyed Jerusalem 79-91 – Pope Anacletus, 3rd pope, known as “blameless” 80 – Coliseum opens in Rome ‘80’s – Rome completes conquest of England, making it a Province of huge Empire 81–96 – Domitian, Roman Emperor
85 – formal anathema in synagogue liturgy against Jewish Christians – “May the Nazarenes & the heretics be suddenly destroyed & removed from the Book of Life.”
85-100 – Gospels of Matthew, Luke & Acts of the Apostles c.85-160 – Marcion born in port city of Sirope on shore of Black Sea (modern Turkey) –
130’s or 140’s moves to Rome
90 – in an attempt to stop spreading Christian cult, Palestinian Jewish rabbis meet at Jamnia to declare Christian writings heretical & outline canon of Hebrew Scriptures containing 39 books (later followed by Protestant Christians), Alexandrian Jews & Jews of dispersion had 46 books following canon laid down by Greek Septuagint which was also used by most Christians. Marks beginning of theory that every letter in Hebrew text has a meaning, resulting in demand for standard text & suppression of any variants
90-95 – I Peter, Hebrews, Revelation (not same author as Gospel & Letters – probably Jewish Christian prophet active in Asia Minor)
90-95 – John exiled on island of Patmos 90-110 – I, II Timothy, Titus – not Paul
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90-100 – Gospel of John, I, II, III John (not the disciple)
c.90 – break between synagogue & Christian community becomes final
93 – writing of Antiquities by Josephus (37-100), Jewish historian publishes Antiquities of the Jews, mentions Jesus: “At this time there appeared Jesus, a wise man. For he was a doer of startling deeds, a teacher of people who receive the truth with pleasure. And he gained a following both among many Jews & among many of Greek origin. And when Pilate, because of an accusation made by the leading men among us, condemned him to the cross, those who had loved him previously, did not cease to do so. And up until this very day the tribe of Christians (named after him) has not died out.”
93 – 2nd persecution of Christians under Domitian (81-96).
c.95 – Clement of Rome (c.30-100), 3d Bishop after St. Peter, writes letter to Corinthians who have deposed their old clergy replacing them with a new man. Clement argues that church leaders possess a divine authority inherited from Christ & his apostles, “apostolic succession” – “The apostles were made evangelists to us by the Lord Christ; Jesus Christ was sent by God. Thus Christ is from God & the apostles from Christ…The Church is built on them as a foundation.” (I Clement 42)
96 – Emperor Domitian stabbed to death in plot organized by his wife & Senators. New emperor Nerva made Trajan, Hadrian’s cousin co-emperor of Rome
96-98 – Nerva Emperor of Rome 98 – Nerva d. Trajan becomes emperor c.98 – d. Apostle John
98-117 – Trajan, first non-Italian Roman Emperor. Roman Empire reaches maximum size. During 2nd cent. number of Christians increases from no more than 250,000 to as many as 1.5 million = less than 2.5% of total population of 60 million in Roman Empire – Jews outnumbered Christians by 4 to 1.
c.100 – Didache/Teachings of the Twelve Apostles written, includes prescription for Eucharist
c.100 – Christian churches are established in Greece, North Africa, Italy, & Asia Minor. Until 3rd cent. “church,” ekklesia = not building but act of gathering for ritual, mostly in private homes, not defined by sacred place but by sacred day of Sunday = beginning of creation of world & day Jesus rose
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c.100 – First London Bridge built across Thames by Romans
100–165 – St. Justin Martyr, born in Flavia Neapolis (modern town of Nablus, near Shechem in Samaria) one of first Christian apologists to offer defense of Christianity, sought to reconcile faith & reason, using Greek philosophy as stepping stone to Christian theology.
c.100-175 – Valentinus born in Egyptian seacoast village, developed form of Christianity that became Christian Gnosticism based on Gnostic myth of ancient Egypt, Greece, Persia, & Judaism: 1. purely spiritual realm, emanating from highest God, populated by divine beings of wisdom & power
2. material world created by mistake, essentially imperfect 3. by mercy of one or more divine beings, spark of light placed in human beings although have to continue to live in darkness 4. in order to awake those who were spiritually asleep, redeemer came from spiritual realm to reveal knowledge that would remind those who responded to return home
101 – Hadrian joins Trajan in Dacian war & is marked out as great General
101-109 – Pope Evaristus, 5th Pope
107 – 3rd persecution of Christians under Trajan (98-117)
107 – Ignatius , bishop of Antioch arrested. As he was being escorted from Antioch to Rome, he wrote letters urging Christians not to interfere with his death.
108 – Hadrian elected one of Rome’s two consuls although two years too young 110 – Marcion b. leader of sect (d. 165) Rejected OT, impossible Jesus born of woman 110-130 – Jude
117 – Trajan dies suddenly without appointing successor. His widow announces Trajan had adopted Hadrian as his son. Eastern legions hail 41 year old Hadrian as emperor who then declares no further conquests but consolidation of empire
118 – 4th persecution of Christians under Hadrian (117-138)
121-180 – Marcus Aurelius b.(reigned 161-180) – highpoint of Roman Empire
122 – Roman emperor Hadrian (reigned 117-138) visits Britain & begins construction of wall (73 miles long, manned by 15,000 auxiliary troops) & fortifications between northern England & Scotland
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125 – Papyrus 52 written around this time, oldest extant NT fragment, containing parts of John 18:31-33 & 37-38.
125-136 – Pope Telesphorus, 8th pope martyred
127-142 – Ptolemy, astronomer, geographer, & mathematician in Alexandria, earth- centered model of universe held until 1542, when Copernicus supplies solar- centered model
130 – Hadrian travels to Egypt during which trip his Greek male lover Antonius dies in boating accident, rebuilds Jerusalem, calling it Aelia Captolina, erects temple to Jupiter, charging special tax to Jews to pay for upkeep of temple Jupiter Capitolinus
130-150 – II Peter
132 – Shimeon Bar-Kokhba & Rabbi Akiba Ben-Joseph lead Jews in revolt against Hadrian & his Roman rule spurred on by Hadrian’s building of a temple to Jupiter & the emperor in Jerusalem on the site of the Jewish temple that had been destroyed 60 years earlier & having declared that Jerusalem should be renamed in his honour. They capture Jerusalem & create an independent state of Israel but for three years Roman Legions continue their campaign against the guerrilla tactics of the Jewish rebel army until 135
134 – Hadrian (age 58) returns to Rome
135 – Julius Severus, formerly governor of Britain, violently crushes revolt in Jerusalem led by Bar-Cocheba, province of Judea is abolished. Final Diaspora (dispersion) of Jews driven out of Judea by edict of Hadrian. Rome changes name of the land to Palestinia – “Land of the Philistines” – Jews do not regain control of land until UN establishes State of Israel 1948. Jews begin to formulate religious way of life based on Torah independent of Jerusale m, temple, & sacrificial ritual
138 – Hardian dies in Naples, succeeded by Antonius Pius who reigns until 161
c.140 – Shepherd of Hermas written, presents highly developed system of bishops, deacons, & priests
c.144 – Marcion founds influential Christian sect which argues for existence of two gods (creator God & Redeemer God) salvation achieved by detaching from world in order to adhere to Saviour, Christ. Solved problem of evil by attributing it to failure of creator God. Sees radical split between OT & NT, taught gospel of love to exclusion of law, rejected Hebrew Scriptures – forced Christians to think seriously about texts & begin to develop “canon”
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mid 2c. – all leading centres of Christianity have Bishops who by late 2c.are unchallenged leaders in church affairs
Massive increase in elaboration of sophisticated Gnostic schemes describing structures of cosmos & mechanisms of enlightenment & salvation, most serious intellectual threat to Church
c.150 – Four “canonical” gospels brought together
c.150 – Justin Martyr in Rome writes First Apology, taking centrist position between Marcion & Valentinus:
1. supreme God of Christians = the divine being ultimately responsible for c reation effected through the logos, the Word of God 2. Jesus = the divine logos incarnate in human form 3. this divine logos = property of Christianity residing in the church
4. the nous begotten by God is capable of a vision of its unbegotten Source – but this is the reward for virtuous living given to a nous that has been adorned by the Holy Spirit, not something owed it by nature (as in Plato)
c.150 – School of Alexandria founded in Egypt, quickly becomes major centre for both Christian theology & Greek philosophy. Among its prominent teachers are theologians Clement (died c.215) & Origen (c.185-254)
c.150–213 – Clement of Alexandria (Egypt) first known major Christian writer to assert gods of other religions really demons:
The verdict of the prophets is that the gods of all the nations
are images of demons.
contradicted general belief in Roman Empire that the gods of all religions & nations were universal differing only in names & certain minor characteristics. He adapted the language of pagan Mysteries to Christian theory of spiritual life, viewed Christianity as fulfillment of highest hopes of pre-Christian world
155 – Bishop Polycarp visits Rome to discuss question of Easter with Bishop Anicetus 156 – Polycarp burned for his faith 160 – Tertullian b. (d. 230) 161-180 – Marcus Aurelius Emperor of Rome
164-180 – Great Plague in Roman Empire
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165 – Justin Martyr & his disciples denounced as Christians, on refusing to sacrifice, were scourged & beheaded
166 – Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius sends gifts to Chinese emperor Huan Ti.
167 – according to Venerable Bede, Eleutherus, bishop of Rome receives request to baptize British king
177 – 5th persecution of church, under Marcus Aruelius (161-180) at Lyon, Blandina martyred
c.180 – Irenaeus (125-c.202), Bishop of Lyons (in modern-day France) Catholic theologian, writes Against Heresies in attempt to fight spread of Gnosticism. Emphasized John’s Gospel, particularly Logos which became voice of God that revealed itself to all people = last writer able to think of himself as belonging to eschatological age of miracle & revelation. Realised necessity of fixed list (Canon) of NT books. Claimed “every church must agree” with church of Rome because of its apostolic authority. Endeavoured to clarify how invisible God came to be seen through manifestation of his incarnate Son, recapitulating all history
Gnosticism from Greek gnosis (‘knowledge’) complex religious movement. In Christian form, becomes prominent in 2c. Attached importance to special knowing which allows soul to free itself from physical, Distinction between ‘creator god’ & supreme unknowable, Jesus = emissary of supreme God bringing ‘gnosis,’ he neither took proper human body nor died, temporarily inhabited a human being, material world & human body essentially flawed. Strong distinction between spirit & matter, God & world. Led to either: asceticism (spirit must be liberated from bonds of flesh) or antinomianism (material world irrelevant so no point in resisting carnal impulses):
1. raised question of defining authoritative canon of Christian texts by producing new gospels, histories, & revelations 2. produced appeal to “apostolic authority” rather than direct spiritual insight, Peter rather than Paul
3. Gnostics gathered in small study groups devaluing rituals of Christian practice – in response church stressed rituals as essential ingredients leading to salvation
180 – First African Christians martyred at Scillium, Africa.
180-192 – Commodus, unworthy son of Marcus Aurelius succeeds his father as emperor of Rome bringing to an end what Edward Gibbon called, “the period in the history of the world, during which the human race was most happy & prosperous.” The Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire chp. III vol 1, p. 95 – period inaugurated by reign of Commodus = time of imperial murders, civil wars, disaster in social & economic life, plague & famine, time of anarchy & societal collapse
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185 – Tertullian converts to Christianity. First Christian theologian to write in Latin. Wrote: “Woman! You are the gateway of the devil. You persuaded him whom the devil dared not attack directly. Because of you the Son of God had to die. You should always go dressed in mourning rags.” Called woman “a temple built over a sewer.”
c.185-c.254 – Origenstudent of Clement – leading teacher, Platonic philosopher & biblical interpreter, developed Paul’s allegorical reading of Bible into a system. Distinguished between ideal & material realms in cosmos & soul & body in humans
c.188-231 – Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria
189-198 – Pope Victor I – 1st Latin Pope (14th) excommunicated Eastern churches that continued to observe Easter on 14th day of Jewish month of Nisan, on whichever day it happened to fall. Rome celebrated Easter on first Sunday after 14th of Nisan due to sacred significance of Sunday
c.190 – Clement of Alexandria becomes head of catechetical school in Alexandria to 203, lay theologian – because creation is good, God has implanted seeds of truth in all creatures
193-211 – Septimius Severus emperor of Rome
c.197 – Tertullian (160-225) converts to Christianity African Church Father, living in Carthage, North Africa, tho roughly Latin culture. First Latin Father, helped formulate concept of Trinity. Quoted pagan remark – “see how these Christians love one another.” Anti-gnostic & against modalism, emphasized faith as contradiction to reason – “I believe because it is absurd”
EARLY CHURCH HERESIES:
Modalism – Father, Son, & Spirit = passing expressions/modes of God, not permanent distinctions. God is an actor playing one role then another: Father active in creation, Son in redemption, Spirit in sanctification
Sabellianism – Father, Son, & Holy Spirit = three different modes, masks, or personalities through which the one God appeared. Denied independent divinity of Son.
Ebionites – Jesus human son of Joseph & Mary on whom Holy Spirit lighted at baptism, endowing him with charismatic gifts which distinguished him from other human beings, over-emphasis on binding character of Mosaic Law
Nestorianism– drastically divided human & divine natures in Christ – erred on side of human
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Adoptionism – Christ = adopted not natural son of God. Jesus human until Holy Spirit descended at baptism
Docetism – (Gk. dokeo “I seem”) – humanity & sufferings of earthly Jesus apparent rather than real, did not really experience human birth. Someone else died on cross in his place, higher insight could perceive that Christ was pure spirit & his physical appearance only an illusion (form of gnosticism)
Apollinarianism – negated Christ’s human spirit – erred on side of divine Monophystism – denied Christ’s human nature, only divine na ture which
absorbed or utilized Christ’s human faculties
Montanism – glorified Spirit at expense of Christ, expectation of speedy outpouring of Holy Spirit on Church with gift of prophecy, antithesis between immediate inspiration & mediated authority, eve ntually reinforced idea that revelation had come to an end with the apostolic age so encouraged closed canon of NT
Monothelitism– claimed Christ had only one will
SCRIPTURE:
Canon – (Gk. “measuring rod,” “rule”) books officially received as containing rule of Christian faith. Jews decided Hebrew Canon in late 1c.
NT – Gospels accepted c.150, placed on same footing as Hebrew Scriptures between 170 & 220.
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367 St. Athanasius in Festal Epistle – earliest exact witness to present NT 382 Council in Rome under St. Damasus (Pope from 366) gave complete
Canon list of Canonical Books of Hebrew & Christian Scriptures
Apocrypha – (Gk. “the hidden things”) – 12 or 15 Biblical books received by early Church as part of Greek version of Hebrew Scriptures but not included in Hebrew Bible (39 books) Accepted in LXX by Palestinian Jews
By 200 church had: monarchical episcopate, bonds of communion among Episcopal sees, generally similar liturgy & sacraments, official lists (ie. canons) of sacred books, formulas of belief (ie. creeds), above all an ideology of a tradition (paradosis) of common belief handed down from apostles (became religion of empire in 4c.)
c.200 – German Goths create tradition of “best man” by taking their best fighter with them to help abduct brides from neighbouring villages
c.200 – Church Father Tertullian wrote about “places of the Britons, unreached by Romans but subject to the law of Christ” – emphasized faith that was contradiction to reason – “I believe because it is absurd,” first to use Trinitarian (three-in-one) formulation for God
c.200 – Buddhism introduced to Southeast Asia
c.200 – Persecution of Christians, decline of Roman Empire (see 180)
c.200 – Edessa (Urfa in modern Turkey) becomes first Christian state
c.200 – Mishnah compiled, first important work of Rabbinic Judaism, compilation of Oral Torah in written form, not new laws but collection of existing traditions
202 – 6th Christian persecution under Septimius Severus (198-211)
202 – Clement of Alexandria goes into hiding in Cappadocia during persecution by Septimius Severus
203 – martyrdom of Perpetua in Carthage, North Africa
205-270 – Plotinus (Neoplatonic non-Christian philosopher in Rome) – practical mystic in whose pagan writings central mystic doctrine of union with God is found, writings based on Platonic philosophy had enormous influence on later Christian mysticism. Pessimism towards body, desire to overcome undue anxiety about things of this world & inward division caused by such anxiety, virtue = that which leads one to God through interior transformation of one’s being. Goal of philosophy = be so inwardly transformed one could live within society with a freedom derived from a simple regard for “the One.” One ultimate reality = “the One” which radiates outward producing the order of the universe as an ongoing process of emanation. Ideal forms of reality located in mind of God, animating force of universe = soul of God, material world = outer limit of divine emanation, a world of shadows holding only dim reflections of origin in the One. Caught in that material world of shadows, human soul ensnared in ignorance. Plotinus called humans to awaken from ignorance by returning to source, turning inward to divine reason within soul & embarking upon a spiritual journey of the soul back to the eternal being of the One. Positive attitude towards culture.
208 – earliest clear reference to Christianity in Roman province of Britain in writings of Tertullian– “places of the Britons unreached by Romans, but subject to the law of Christ.”
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209 – St. Alban, first British martyr, killed for his faith in one of few persecutions of Christians by pagans on the island, during governorship of Gaius Junius Faustinus Postumianus
211 – Christians tolerated under Emperor Antonius Caracalla
211 – Origen “Admantius” becomes head of catechetical school in Alexandria (until 232/233)
c.212 – Christian School of Alexandria begins to become official or semi-official institution in church
c.217-222 – Hippolytus of Rome hears Origen in Rome.First of series of Anti-Popes (illegitimate claimants of or pretenders to papal throne). The Apostolic Tradition (between 215 & 217) – “And first baptize the little ones; and if they can speak for themselves, they shall do so; if not, their parents or other relatives shall speak for them. Then baptize the men, and last of all the women; they must first loosen their hair and put aside any gold or silver ornaments that they are wearing: let no one take any alien thing down to the water with them.”
230 – Origen (c.185-c.254) ordained priest in Palestine. Alexandrian/Greek biblical critic, exegete, theologian, spiritual writer, student of Clement shaper of Eastern theological tradition, Christianized & theologized neo-Platonism – all souls existed before being united with flesh & all but one fell away from God – this one God chose to unite with his Logos to form Son of Man, rest have individually fallen (emanation) & must find way back to God (return) through help of the Logos. Absolute primacy of immaterial & invisible over visible & material, tendency to demean body – there is a whole interior & immaterial world corresponding to the exterior one – 5 interior senses mirroring those of body
231 – private house in the city of Dura- Europas on Euphrates adapted for Christian worship = earliest known example of a church with religious pictures on walls
232-304 – Porphyry strongly anti-Christian but important influence in history of Christian mysticism
235 – Christian persecution under Emperor Maximin (235-238) the Thracian
235 – Origen’s Exhortation to Martyrdom in response to persecution in Caesarea: 1. martyrdom guaranteed immediate salvation, deliverance from bondage to body 2. required to properly follow Jesus 3. means of being model to others of true Christian life 4. = way to repay debt to God 5. supplemented Christian sacrificial system
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In Commentary on Romans, written between 233 & 244, Origen writes, “It is also due to this (hereditary sin) that the church has a tradition from the apostles to give baptism even to infants.”
235-284 – Civil War in Roman Empire
236-238 – Maximus emperor of Rome ends Christian schism by deporting Pope Pontian & anti-Pope Hippolytus to Sardinia where they soon die
244 – Plotinus, pagan from Egypt, opens school in Rome, emphasizes transcendence of God, God’s incomprehensibility, due to His simplicity. Nous is emanated from God & contains ideas of both classes & individuals. Two Souls (corresponding to Plato’s World Soul) proceed from Nous. Material creation exists at the bottom of this chain & is the principle of evil. Curiously, Plotinus criticized the Gnostics for their contempt for material reality, considering it worthy of high value as the image of intelligible reality. Plotinus taught that the soul can rise to union with God through purification, the rejection of sense perception in favour of philosophy & science, a stage which is beyond discursive thought, & a final stage of mystical union which is beyond separation. Vladimir Lossky points out that whereas Plotinus viewed union as simplicity & the removal of distinction, Christian mysticism sees God’s incomprehensibility as due not to His simplicity, but as absolute, & thus union with God is a “going forth from being as such.” Plotinus died in 269 or 270. His chief disciple was Porphyry, a critic of Christianity, who offered Neoplatonism as a cultured alternative to Christianity among the upper classes.
247 – Dionysius, pupil of Origen, becomes bishop of Alexandria (247-64)
248 – Cyprian (200-258) elected Bishop of Carthage, principle authority in Latin Church before St. Augustine, “high church” theologian. Had to deal with problem of those who denied faith in face of persecution & later asked to be received back into church. No salvation outside Church
249 – Rome celebrates 1,000th anniversary
Second half 3d Century – period of severe trial for Roman Empire close to political & social disintegration & economic breakdown. Christianity on rise. By 300 Christians in influential positions, penetrating into every level of society
250 – Decius Roman Emperor (249-251) begins 7th persecution of Christians with execution of Fabian, Bishop of Rome Jan. 250. All citizens required to give proof of having sacrificed to Emperor, many give way or escape through bribery, thousands die – problem of whether penance possible for lapsed. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (248-258) argues no human has power to remit apostasy, leads to Donatist schism. In response to persecution many flee into desert, among them St. Paul of Thebes (227-340), said to be first Christian hermit, lived 90 years in cave
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250-336 – Life of Arius, priest at Alexandria (Egypt), founder of Arianism. Arianism was one of the most widespread divisive heresies in history of Christianity. Arius taught (c.318) God is utterly transcendent, can have no involvement in world & therefore created, before all things, a Son who was the first creature, but who was neither equal to nor coeternal with the Father, to work in the world. According to Arius, Jesus Christ was a supernatural creature not quite human & not quite divine. Jesus was closer to God than any other human being, but was born a man. Felt any attempt to recognize the deity of Christ would blur the lines between Christianity & the pagan religions. If Christianity recognized two separate gods, the Father & Jesus, would become a polytheistic religion
Subordinationist – teaching about Person of Christ: there are two Persons substantially similar (homoiousion) but not the same (homoousion). In these ideas Arius followed the school of Lucian of Antioch
251 – Antony born near Memphis in Egypt.
251 – Cyprian, bishop of Carthage writes Unity of the Church
251 – two candidates for pope – Novatian(anti-Pope) – teaches that lapsed who denied faith under persecution, should not be admitted back into church – first major complaint church becoming lax, no forgiveness for sins after baptism. Cornelius who wins election as pope – bishop can remit even grave sins
251-253 – Gallus emperor of Rome
253-260 – Valerian, emperor of Rome, executes all bishops, priests & deacons
254 – Origen dies from injuries suffered in persecution
257 – 8th persecution under Valerian (253-260)
258 – St. Cyprian of Carthage dies martyr’s death in Valerian persecution.
260-261 – emperor Gallienus granted toleration by edict & restored confiscated churches & cemeteries
260-268 – Pope Dionysius (25th) rebuilds Roman church after Valerian persecution 268 – Goths sack Athens, Corinth, & Sparta 270 – Plotinus writes bitter attack against Christians 272 – birth of Constantine
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276-282 – Marcus Aurelius Probus emperor of Rome
284-305 – Diocletian emperor of Rome, notorious persecutor of Christians
c.285 – St. Antony of Egypt (c.251-356) retires to desert where he attracts a number of disciples. Egypt has a million Christians
286 – Emperor Diocletian divides Roman Empire. He rules East & Maximilian West
290-345 – Pachomius establishes 1st monastery in Egypt
296-304 – Pope Marcellinus (29th) apostate, offered pagan sacrifices for Diocletian
296 – 373 – Athanasius disputed Arius & taught Jesus must be divine, because otherwise, could not be Saviour, wrote Life of Antony
beginning 4th cent. – Christians = no more than 5% of population of Roman Empire, mostly living in major cities: Rome, Carthage, Alexandria, Ephesus, & Antioch
300 – Buddhism begins to become prominent religion in China, begins to penetrate Korea 300 – Codex Vaticanus written – one of oldest extant manuscripts of Bible, probably
slightly older than Codex Sinaiticus
303 – Diocletian (Roman Emperor 284-305) orders general persecution of all Christians on Feb. 23 by issuing edict at Nicomedia which demanded burning of churches & Christian books = “The Great Persecution”
303 – St. Alban martyred in England story told in Bede’s (673-735) Ecclesiastical History of the English People – when persecution of Christians breaks out Alban shelters fleeing cleric in his home, moved by cleric’s example was baptized, when house searched Alban disguises himself as guest executed in his place
305 – persecution of Christians continues under Emperor Galenius = last persecution of Christians under Roman authority
c.305 – Antony comes out of solitude to organize disciples into community of hermits who live under a rule (an innovation) but with little common life = beginning of early Egyptian Monasticism (Desert Fathers) lasting to death of Simeon Stylites (459)
306 (July 25) – in York, Constantine’s father dies. Constantine’s troops declare him new emperor of Britain & Gaul
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4th cent. churches develop “public” style of architecture & become recognizable as churches
Donatists – schismatic body in African Church, insisted church of saints must remain “holy,” believers who had lapsed from Christian faith under persecution, had not received genuine baptism or ordination to priesthood, guilty of mortal sin & could not perform valid sacrament. Believed validity of sacraments depended on moral character of priest. Required second baptism of “lapsed.” Caused rupture in North African church that lasted 300 years & so weakened church that, what had been one of strongest areas eventually lost to Christianity
306-312 – Maxentius emperor of Western Roman empire
312 (Oct. 28) – Constantine the Great, emperor of Eastern Empire (from 306 – 337) defeats & kills Maxentius, emperor of Western Empire (from 308). Constantine converts to Christianity after seeing vision of luminous cross bearing words “In hoc signo vinces” – “By this sign you shall conquer”) before The Battle of Milvian Bridge (four miles north of Rome). After this his legions emblazoned on their shields the Chi/Rho – first two letters of Greek for Christ
Beginning of period of transition for Roman Empire from persecutor of Church to officially Christian Empire
313 – Constantine issues Edict of Milan, granting legal rights to all Christians & restoring confiscated possessions. Christianity not yet official religion of Roman Empire
Eusebius (c.260-339), bishop of Caesarea saw promise of Christian kingdom of God on earth fulfilled through imperial rule of Constantine – possibility of establishing theocracy. Argued that if Emperor was going to maintain order of heaven & earth, he (the “Friend of God”) had to establish a uniform system of belief & practice to be shared by all Christians. Under Constantine’s rule, Christian religion would be “catholic” or “universal” to extent imperial power reinforced uniformity in Christian beliefs, practices, & social organizations. Emperor acted in ways previously ascribed to Son of God
313 – Antony withdraws again, this time to Inner Mountain near Red Sea shelters in tomb dug out of rock & later barricades himself in disused hut
313 – Miltiades excommunicates Donatus for requiring rebaptism of apostates
313-636 – Byzantine rule of Palestine
314 – First Synod of Arles summoned by Constantine to deal with Donatist schism (teaching of Donatus, bishop of Casae Nigrae that effectiveness of sacraments depends on moral character of minister, emerged as result of Diocletian persecution 303 how to deal with those who recanted faith after persecution
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ended) – attended by three Bishops from Roman province of Britain who signed “Canons” of Council of Arles
c.315 – Amun, associate of Antony left wife, home & land to organize small desert colonies which came to be known as “cells” of renunciates. These colonies combined lifestyle of hermit with new sense of community
315 – first Christian symbols appeared on coinage
316 – Constantine intervenes in dispute in Carthage between rival claimants to office of bishop – after persecution, churches in North Africa faced with problem of Christians who lapsed. In Carthage one group of Christians required lapsed to be rebaptized – their candidate for Bishop was Donatus – most bishops in North Africa more lenient – their candidate was Caecilianus. Constantine sided with Caecilianus, ordered all Donatist churches confiscated – four months later, Donatist Christians who resisted this oppression killed by Roman soldiers & angry Christians
c.320 – Pachomius (c.290-346) founds monastery at Tabennisi in the Thebaid near the Nile = founder of cenobitic (organized/communal) monasticism in Egypt. At his death he was abbot- general of over 9 monasteries for men and 2 for women.
321 – Arius deposed as bishop
321 – Emperor Constantine declares Sunday to be a day of rest: “On the venerable day of the Sun let the magistrates & people residing in cities
rest, & let all workshops be closed. In the country however persons engaged in agriculture may freely & lawfully continue their pursuits because it often happens that another day is not suitable for grain-sowing or vine planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.”
324 – Constantine moves capital of Empire to Constantinople (on site of ancient Greek city of Byzantium – renamed Istanbul in 1930, no w largest city in Turkey) – Rome no longer centre of power for empire – church begins to fill power gap at Rome. Bishop of Constantinople takes place beside Bishops of Alexandria & Rome. After conquering Eastern empire Constantine’s demand for uniform church organization & unanimity among Christians in matters of religious belief embraced both East & West.
325 – First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (city in present day Turkey) convened by Emperor Constantine. 318 bishops out of the approximately 1,800 bishops in existenceattended. EstablishesNiceneCreedasfundamentalstatementof Christian doctrine. The purpose was to settle the dispute over the teachings of Arius (d. 336) that Christ was not equal in divinity to God. Council declares Jesus equal in divinity to God by majority vote & declares Arianism a heresy. Defines
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relationship between Christ & Father as “consubstantial”/of the same substance (homoousios). As Christian emperor rose in importance (exercising divine kingship, maintaining sacred order, combating evil, & disseminating knowledge necessary to salvation) Son of God rose even higher into heavens, stressing Son’s divinity. Council also formulated canons governing ordination of clergy, election of bishops, & defining Episcopal authority. Constantine specified that religious toleration of Christianity applied only to Catholic Christians, thus trying to create a unified Christianity for a unified Christian empire.
325-590 Post-Nicene era 327 – Macrina, elder sister of Sts. Basil & Gregory of Nyssa dies after heading convent
of nuns in Asia Minor
328 – Athanasius becomes bishop of Alexandria. Defender of homoousion (“of the same substance”) against Arians. Defended Church’s independence from Empire. “God became man in order that man might become God.”
328-361 – Arians control key political & ecclesiastical posts; orthodox bishops in exile
329 – Gregory of Nazianzus b. Cappadocian
330 – old Saint Peter’s Basilica dedicated by Constantine, located over traditional burial site of Peter in Rome on Vatican Hill
330 – Macarius the Great begins monastery in Scetis which grows rapidly. Monasteries spring up in Palestine
330 – Basil the Great b. Cappadocian, gave mystical orientation to monastic movement
331 – seat of Roman empire moved to Constantinople
332 – Constantine orders 50 parchment Bibles indicating widespread use of parchment codex (pages) over previously dominant rotulus (roll) by this date
333 – Antony comes out of solitude & has profound spiritual impact 335 – Gregory of Nyssa b. – believed universe existed as harmonious order emanating
from God
336 – Christmas first celebrated on December 25th, same date as first-century BCE Roman holiday for sun god Mithra.
337 – Emperor Constantine baptized on deathbed (age 49) – empire split between 3 sons: Constantinus rules East & is Arian; Constantine II orthodox shares rule of West (including Britain, Gaul & Spain) (until 340 when falls in war) with Constans,
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supported by Pope; Constans shares rule of West with Constantine II (rules Italy, Africa, Illyricum, Macedonia, and Achaea) – Constans killed by usurper Magenentius in 353 leaving Constantius emperor of whole empire
339 – dedication of Basilica of the Nativity in Bethlehem = another in Constantine’s systematic destruction & appropriation of pagan sites for Christianity.
340 – Death of Constantine II leaves Constans sole ruler of West until 350
340 – Athanasius , Ammonius the Tall, & Isidore visit Rome – monastic ideal spreads in West
346 – death of Pachomius
mid 4th cent. – church building flourishes, great basilicas built on sites of former pagan temples
350 – Roman co-emperor Constans murdered in a military coup engineered by his military commander Magnentius – leads to period of civil war
350 – Cyril (c. 315-386) becomes bishop of Jerusalem, persecuted by Arians & three times ejected from his see
350 – Christianity first reaches Ethiopia. There are about 33 million Christians in Roman Empire (total population 60 million)
350 – John of Lycopolis begins 48 years as a recluse
354 – Augustine b.
356 – Athanasius of Alexandria writes to Christian emperor Constantius II extolling virtue of virginity as “a picture of the holiness of the angels,” by which time “the brides of Christ” had become an important Christian institution
356 – St. Antony dies Jan. 17 age 105 358 – St. Basil the Great (330-379, Cappadocian) settles as hermit by river Iris near
Neo-caesarea, gave mystical orientation to monastic movement
360 – Council at Arminium called by Constantius II to resolve Arian controversy. Attended by some 400 bishops of Western Roman Empire, but Eastern bishops attend meeting at same time at Seleucia. Most bishops at Arminium subscribe to Nicaean Creed (325) but Arians are supported by emperor & reverse majority decision. Orthodox majority forced to recant Nicaean Creed & accept Arian creed formulated at Nice in Thracia (but see 361)
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360 – Martin of Tours takes up monastic life
360 – Huns invade Europe, scrolls begin to be replaced by books (Codex)
361 – Pope Liberius repudiates Arian creed, annuls Arminium Council
361-363 – Emperor Julian the Apostate, Emperor of East, tries to restore paganism in place of Christianity
c.364 – The Church Council of Laodicea orders religious observances be conducted on Sunday, not Saturday. Sunday becomes new Sabbath, decrees death for Christians who keep 7th day Sabbath: “Christians shall not Judaize & be idle on Saturday, but shall work on that day.”
- names 26 New Testament books, excludes Revelations 367 – Festal Epistle Easter letter of St. Athanasius bishop of Alexandria (c.293-373)
offers earliest known list of the New Testament canon of 27 books
370 – Basil appointed Bishop of Caesarea. Designer of Rule of discipline under which monasticism of Greek Orthodoxy still organized. Insisted law of love of God & neighbour = context for monasticism
c.371 – Gregory of Nyssa (c.330-c.395, Cappadocian) consecrated bishop of Nyssa – universe exists as harmonious order emanating from God
c.372 – Gregory Nazianzen (330-390, Cappadocian) consecrated to see of Sasima – most profound of Greek Fathers
372 – Buddhism introduced into Korea
374 – St. Ambrose (339-397), baptized & made bishop of Milan
375 – Jerome spends five years in desert of Chalcis
376 – Gregory of Nyssa deposed by Arians remains in exile two years
378 – death of Roman emperor Valens, Arian sympathizer, allowed return of Gregory of Nyssa from exile
379 – Basil the Great d. 379 – Buddhism made state religion in China
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379-395 – reign of Emperor Theodosius I of Rome – makes orthodox Christianity essential requirement of good citizenship, outlaws paganism & makes heresy liable to punishment = la st emperor of united empire
380 – Christianity becomes official religion of Roman Empire under Theodosius I
381 – First Council of Constantinople. Convened by Theodosius I, then emperor of East & recent convert, to confirm victory over Arianism, council drew up dogmatic statement on Trinity & defined Holy Spirit as having same divinity expressed for Son by Council of Nicaea 56 years earlier. That statement has been lost, but work of the council established the orthodox teaching of the Trinity as held today
council condemned all varieties of Arianism along with a new heresy, Apollinarianism (no human spirit in Christ – human body, soul & Divine Logos – thus lacking in complete humanity). The sessions, which were attended only by bishops of the East, lasted two months. Nicene Creed reformulated. Also gave Bishop of Constantinople honorary pre-eminence after Bishop of Rome, a claim the bishop of Rome refused to recognize.
381 – Egeria, pious woman from north-western Spain embarks on three-year pilgrimage through Holy Land – part of explosion of interest in Christian pilgrimage in 4th cent.
381-after 418 – Proculus bishop of Marseilles
382 – Evagrius Ponticus (346-399) withdraws to Nitrian desert where becomes friend & disciple of St. Macarius of Egypt. Stays in desert until death. From 553 condemned for Origenistic views
382-384 – Pope Damasus I has Jerome revise & unify Latin Bibles
383 – Augustine leaves Carthage & establishes himself as professor of rhetoric in Italian city of Milan, breaks from Manicheans & joins group of intellectuals including a few Christians
383 – Roman legions begin to evacuate Britain
384-399 – Siricius reigned – first bishop of Rome to be called Pope (father)
385 – Jerome & companions found monastery near Bethlehem
385 – bishop Ambrose in Milan defies Empress, helping establish principle of Church confrontation of State to protect Christian teaching
385 – John Cassian (c.360-435, monk) leaves Bethlehem to study monasticism in Egypt. His Dialogues is one of most important documents for history of Christian
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mysticism. Brought Evagrius’ thought to West
387 – Augustine of Hippo (354-430 born in North Africa now Algeria & Tunisia) converts to Christianity, under influence of mother Monica & Bishop Ambrose. Becomes leading theologian in church’s history by writing major theological works like City of God (in response to charge Rome’s fall was due to disregarding old gods & turning to Christianity) & Confessions & by writing polemics against heresies. Brought Platonism & Christianity together, emphasizing soul’s search for God, made possible by illumination of mind of God. Taught love = central & governing virtue & measure of all activity, pride = chief vice, great emphasis on humility. Responsible for language of soul’s interior ascent to God. Battled:
Messalians (Syriac)/ Euchites (Gk.) – Gnostic sect endeavoured to pray without ceasing by continuously reciting Lord’s Prayer. Taught spiritual person could no longer sin, material world fundamentally evil, rejected OT & God as Creator, stressed private prayer at expense of sacraments
Manicheans – believed there were two deities, one good & one evil, who are at war
Donatitsts (see above)
Pelagians – humans not born sinful, could live sinless lives. All Christians should keep all the commandments. Denied human sin inherited from Adam. Jesus = model for human behaviour not source of grace. Human being = cause of own salvation through ascesis & moral discipline. Forced Augustine to a clear awareness of absolute priority of God’s grace. In response to Pelagianism Augustine produced an unacceptable version of predestination in which sovereign grace becomes arbitrary rescuing the elect. Shifted emphasis in Christian theology & spirituality from transfiguration of the universe to the tragedy of the human condition.
388 – Palladius (c.365-425, historian of early monasticism) visits Alexandria, Nitiria & Cellia
389 – Gregory of Nazianzus d.
c.390 – Gregory of Nyssa writes The Life of Moses
390 – Ambrose Bishop of Milan forces Emperor Theodosius to do public penance for massacre of 7,000 at Thessalonica
390 – first mention of Apostles’ Creed in writings of St. Ambrose – used only in West, East used Nicene Creed.
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391-392 – monks help destroy Temple of Sarapis at Alexandria
393 – Theodosius I abolishes Greek Olympics
394 – Council of Carthage - first council to uphold doctrines of prayers for dead & purgatory
394 – seven monks from Jerusalem visit Egyptian monks
395 – Gregory of Nyssa d.
395 -Roman Empire divided again between East & West, setting stage for eventual division of Christian Church. Latin Christianity based in Rome under leadership of popes, Eastern Orthodoxy develops in east in Constantinople under leadership of patriarchs
395 – Jovinian, celibate monk suggestes “virgins, widows & married women, who have once gone through Christian baptism, if they are equal in other respects, are of equal merit.” Declared heretic by Jerome, Ambrose, & Augustine because, “he has dared to place marriage on an equal level with perpetual chastity”
397 – Ninian builds church & monastery at Whittorn, Scotland
398 – St. John Chrysostom (347-407) made patriarch of Constantinople
399 – Theophilus turns against teachings of Origen, Origenists driven out of Egypt – Origenist controversy dramatically alters monasticism of Egypt
late 4th & 5c – period Roman Empire pulling back from far flung empire in defense against invasions from barbarians from north
MIDDLE AGES from fall of Rome (476) to Renaissance (14c.- mid.17c.) – early Middle Ages sometimes referred to as DARK AGES
400s – Anglo-Saxon pagan invaders almost eliminate Christianity in England
Early 5c. Roman soldiers leave England leaving population of converted Celtic Christians
c.400 – John Cassian arrives in Constantinople & becomes disciple of St. John Chrysostom
401 – Innocent I becomes Pope (until 417) claims universal jurisdiction over Roman Church, decrees Roman custom to be norm for all Christianity
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403 – Synod of the Oak condemns Tall Brothers & John Chrysostom – presided over by Theophilus of Alexandria
404 – Chrysostom’s second & definitive exile
404 – St Jerome (rabidly anti-Origenist) translates Rule of Pachomius into Latin – profound influence on subsequent forms of Western monasticism
c.405 – St. Jerome (c.347 – 419) completes Vulgate (“in the common tongue”) – Latin translation of both Old & New Testaments, standard text for 1,000 years remains Latin Bible of RC Church. Cites “expanded” ending of Mark after 16:14, adds pericope of adulteress (Jn. 7:53-8:11)
405–410 – The History of the Monks of Egypt (based on the journey of 394) completed
407 – John Chrysostom dies on forced march in exile
407–408 – First devastation of Scetis by Berber tribes – dramatically affects Egyptian monasticism
410 – last Roman legions leave Britain, leaving behind strong Romano-British Christian culture & church
410 (Aug 24) – led by Alaric, Goths enter & sack Rome. Pope Innocent I survives because out of Rome, trying to arrange peace with Roman Emperor Honorius. Alaric I of the Visigoths dies later that year, succeeded by brother Ataulf. Sack of Rome caused consternation throughout Empire, motivated Augustine’s City of God. Began period of “barbarian” dominance of Empire in West
410-485 – Proclus Greek Neoplatonis philosopher, one of last major Classical philosophers. Eros not just expression of human need but universal force binding together all levels of reality & drawing them up toward the One
411 – Council of Carthage condemns Donatists (church must be church of saints not sinners, sacraments invalid if administered by those who lapsed under persecution)
415 – John Cassian (c.360-435) founded 2 monasteries near Marseilles & wrote the Institutes – ordinary rules for monastic life drawn on by St. Benedict
415 – Hypatia pagan scholar, killed at hands of Christian mob. Close advisor of Orestes, Roman governor of Alexandria, Hypatia had been a popular public lecturer in philosophy & mathematics
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417 – Pope Innocent I condemns Pelagianism (original sin did not taint human nature, therefore humans free to choose good or evil without divine aid, Jesus set example but did not redeem humanity)
418 – British monk Pelagius (c. 354 – 420) excommunicated at Council of Carthage. Pelagius denied original sin & need for baptism, asserting if God asked men to do good, they must be capable of doing good on their own, condemned by Augustine
419 – Palladius writes Lausiac History of the Friends of God = most valuable single writing that survives for history of early monasticism
420 – Cassian begins writing Institutes
420 – Jerome d.
423 – Symeon Stylites begins living on pole in Antioch, Syria
425 – Bishops of sounthern Gaul commanded by imperial decree to profess anti-Pelagian views
425 – Jerusalem Talmud edited 426 – Augustine declares purpose of marriage is procreation.& writes Grace & Free Will
& Rebuke & Grace 429 – vandals ravage Africa
429 – Picts & Scots expelled from southern England by Anglo Saxon-Jutes
430 (Augt 28) – Augustine d. age 76
c.430 – St. Patrick (390-460) “Apostle of Ireland,” taken captive from England by Irish, escapes & goes to France where he enters monastery, eventually returning to see his family where he had a dream of babies of Ireland pleading with him to return to Ireland to return to tell them about Christ. Introduced Christianity to pagan Ireland. A Roman Briton, he was born Maewyn Succat & adopted Patrick or Patricius upon becoming a priest
431- Ecumenical Council of Ephesus (3rd ecumenical council) denounces teachings of Nestorius (d.451), who argued Christ had completely separate human & divine natures conjoined rather than in essential union ie. Christ exists as two persons – the man Jesus & the divine Son of God, the Logos, rather than as two natures (True God & True Man ) of one divine person
also voted Mary is the mother of God as well as of Jesus Christ. Syrian bishops joined by Theodoret (bishop of Cyrrhus in Syria) held rival meeting &
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excommunicated Cyril (bishop of Alexandria) & Memon (bishop of Ephesus) Split Christianity into East centre in Persia (Nestorian – disagree with Council of Ephesus) & West (Jacobites)
Kabbalah (literally “receiving”) – Jewish mysticism has roots earlier than Christianity. Flourishes in Middle Ages & Renaissance. Struggles with problem of how person can relate to God who is totally other & how God relates to creation.
432 – Prosper publishes Against the Confessor critique of Cassian’s “Conference 13” 432 – First celebration of St. Patrick’s Day in Ireland, to honour arrival of St. Patrick 433 – Attila becomes ruler of the Huns (until 453) c.435 – John Cassian dies
436 – Nestorius banished to Upper Egypt where dies few years later
440-460 – Leo the Great, (46th) first Pope to assert authority over other bishops, claiming bishop of Rome is successor to Apostle Peter
444 – according to legend Patrick establishes Episcopal see at Armagh. Christianity in Ireland centres around monasteries rather than cities as in Europe, therefore ruled by Abbot or Abbess, bishops subordinate
449 – country now known as England invaded by barbarian tribes: Angles, Saxons & Jutes, kill or drive most indigenous Christians into Western parts of Britain. Christian faith suffers temporary eclipse
Indigenous form of Christian faith survives in British Isles, carrying on their traditions for next 150 years, establishing strong centres: Scotland through Ninian (360-432), Patrick (389-461) Wales by missionary work of Illtyd (450-535)
island of Iona where monastery founded by St. Columba (563) Lindisfarne with arrival of St. Aidan from Iona (635)
Celtic Christianity did not rely on Roman church, centred rather in local monasticism, lacked administrative organization of Roman Church
449 – Acquittal of Eutyches (c.378-454) archimiandrite of large monastery at Constantinople. Denied manhood of Christ was consubstantial with ours. Maintained two natures before but only one after Union in the Incarnate Christ, real founder of Monophysitism(Gk. monos “one”, phunis “nature”)
450 – Mark’s resurrection account added (Mark 16:9-20) 42
450 – Athanasian Creed written by anonymous author in Gaul 451 – Attila invades Gaul but is repulsed by joint forces of Franks, Alemanni & Romans
at battle of Chalons. Invades Italy the next year
451- Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon(4th ecumenical council)votes Christ simultaneously “truly man and truly God”
traditional belief that Jesus had both a divine & human nature was being challenged at the time by Monophysitism, an outgrowth of the Alexandrian school. Their followers believed that Christ had only a single divine nature. The council rejected that belief. In their Chalcedonian definition, affirmed Christ had two natures which were “…without confusion, without change, without division, without separation.” This formulation has survived as the traditional belief to the present day among almost all branches of Christendom.
little known statement of the Council was Canon #15 (1):
“No woman under 40 years of age is to be ordained a deacon, & then only after close scrutiny.” – appears to be last time in church history ordination of women mentioned as routine practice in any form, certainly establishes women did hold, at one time, important church offices
Despite objections of Pope, patriarchal powers formally conferred on Bishop of Constantinople. From this point until schism of 1054, Orthodox E. & Catholic W. struggle for dominance
451 (30 Oct.) – Bishop of Constantinople made sole & independent head (patriarch) of Greek Church of Eastern Empire
455 – Gaiseric leads Vandals in sacking Rome. Vandals invade Rome, pillage it for 14 days & leave, taking treasures & hostages (including Empress Eudoxia & her daughters). Vandals head east to Greece & Dalmatia
457-474 – Leo I becomes emperor of remaining (eastern) Roman empire 459 – death of Symeon the Stylite 461 – possible death of St. Patrick or 493
476 – abdication of Romulus Augustus, last Roman Emperor in West, Western Roman Empire falls to barbarian armies, leaving church as primary authority in West = end of antiquity. In East, Roman Empire survives until death of Justinian (565) then becoming the Byzantine Empire based in Constantinople which continues for
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the next 977 years. Means W. & E. Christians no longer under same political rule & differences in belief & practice grow
Alexandrian Theology – Platonic tradition, sense of reality of spiritual world & tolerance of dualism, transcendence of God, essential godhead of all Three Persons, divine Nature in Incarnate Christ, tended towards tritheism, mystical & allegorical exposition of Scripture
Antiochene Theology – Aristotelian & historical, historical exegesis of Scripture. Emphasized humanity of Jesus. Saw two natures of Jesus as loosely connected
477 – Latest date for invention of stirrup in China. Stirrups provide many advantages to horseback rider: easy way to mount a horse, lateral stability while mounted, make it much easier to strike to the left or right with a sword while mounted without falling
478 – first Shinto religious shrines built in Japan
480-524 – Boethius , philosopher & statesman
483 – Sabas establishes monastic settlement outside Bethlehem
491 – Armenian church secedes from East (Byzantium) & West (Roman) churches
492-496 – Pope Gelasius I (50th) first to be referred to as “Vicar of Christ”
493 – possible date of death of St. Patrick
494 – St. Valentine’s Day set as February 14th by Pope Gelasius I
496 – Clovis, king of Franks leads thousands of Frankish warriors to be baptized by Bishop at Rhemis
c. 500 – Talmud, a compilation of Jewish oral laws & traditions, put in final form in Babylonia. Two parts: oral law (Mishna) in Hebrew & commentaries on the oral law (Gemara) in Aramaic
500 – Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite originates distinction between kataphatic & apophatic
500 – Incense introduced in Christian church service; first plans of Vatican drawn up 500 – Inuit begin hunting seals & whales 500 – King Arthur takes up struggle against Saxons
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500 – Benedict of Nursia withdraws to cave to begin monastic life 503 – Britons, possibly under war leader Arthur, defeat Saxons at Mount Badon 511 – death of Clovis
518 (July) – Emperor Anastasia dies, leaving no obvious successor – Justinian in his thirties living in Constantinople. His uncle Justin is declared new emperor & soon adopts his nephew as his son & heir
520 – Indian scholar Bodhidharma arrives in China. Zen school of Buddhism eventually evolves from his teachings
524 – Boethius (b.480) – Roman Christian philosopher wrote Consolation of Philosophy 525 – Dionysius Exiguus sets Christian calendar (A.D.) & Jesus’ birth at 23 Dec 1 AD. 526 – Earthquake in Antioch kills 250,000
527 – Justinian’s reign begins, last emperor to rule over united Roman Empire, responsible for codification of Roman Law that affects many future civilizations & re-conquest of Africa & Italy
529 – Plato’s Academy dissolved by Justinian the Great
529 – Council of Orange condemned Massilian teaching that allowed some initiative, however feeble, of human will (the initium fidei) Issued 25 dogmatic capitula upholding many of Augustine’s doctrines on nature of grace though repudiating Augustine’s later views on predestination to evil
c.529 – Italian monk Benedict establishes monastery on Monte Cassino, in Italy. His Benedictine order eventually establishes Western monastic tradition which spread rapidly throughout Europe. Benedict wrote most important Western monastic rule. (today there are 8,500 Benedictine monks around the world) 8-12c. Benedictines = only religious life in W.
537 – Belesarius, Justinian’s commander re-conquers Rome. In response Justinian begins building Hagia Sophia (Divine Wisdom), largest Christian church in the world, in Constantinople as focal point of Byzantine Christianity
538 – Buddhism introduced into Japan from Korea
543 – plague in Constantinople from Egyptian & Syria n rats, kills up to 200,000 (40% of Mediterranean manpower) making difficult to collect taxes, spreads to Europe
547 – plague reaches Britain 45
548 – Theodora, Justinian’s wife dies 550 – Saint David takes Christianity to Wales 550 – Babylonian Talmud edited
553 – Second Council of Constantinople (5th ecumenical), convened by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I to settle dispute known as the Three Chapters. West, in general, slow in recognizing it as an ecumenical council, though ultimately it was accepted, chiefly because of the orthodoxy of its pronouncements. Condemned Evagrius’ metaphysical system along with that of Origen.
562 – End of Japanese power in Korea.
563 – Irish monk Saint Columba (Columcille) with twelve companions founds monastery on island of Iona off West Coast of Scotland & begins conversion of Picts to Christianity
565 – (Nov.14) Justinian dies (age 83) with him dies any hope of re-unifying Roman Empire
570 – Muhammad born in Mecca. Founder of Islam (“submission” ie. to will of God – adherents called Muslims) doctrine found in Koran
579-590 – Pope Pelagius II dies of plague
587 – Visigoths of Spain converted to Christianity
589 – Lombards of Italy converted to Christianity
589 – synod in Teledo, Spain adds filioque to Nicene Creed (asserting Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son)
590–604 – Pope Gregory the Great (c.540-604) plague ravaged Rome, elected Pope amidst great political & cultural decadence begins liturgical reforms & changes in church administration, enhancing both power & prestige of papacy. Originally Benedictine, Gregory creates religious policy for western Europe by fusing Roman papacy with Benedictine monasticism. Establishes Latin church which serves to counteract subordination of Roman popes to Eastern emperors
also commanded way be found to collect & preserve singing of Benedictine monks of Santo Domingo de Silos (now known as Gregorian Chant).
as fourth great “church father,” St. Gregory the Great drew his theology from Ambrose of Milan, Jerome & Augustine of Hippo. His concepts of purgatory & penance widen growing theological gulf between Eastern & Western Churches
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596 – Pope Gregory the Great sends Augustine (d. 605) Italian monk along with 40 monks to England on missionary journey to spread message of Christianity, unaware any Christians there until arrived. Lands in Kent (summer 597), favourably received, Christmas Day, 10,000 people baptized. After few months Christianity formally adopted by Ethelbert, King of Kent, whose wife Bertha had been Christian before marriage. Augustine went to Arles to be consecrated first Archbishop of Canterbury, brought spirit of law & order of Church. Meets bishops of old British Church, finds indigenous Christianity rooted in soil, varying eucharistic rites different from those used in Rome – declares they must recognize his authority & bring customs into conformity with Rome, refused
Pope Gregory I to Augustine – “If you have found customs, whether in the Church of Rome or of Gaul or any other that may be more acceptable to God, I wish you to make a careful selection of them, and teach the Church of the English, which is still young in the Faith, whatever you have been able to learn with profit from the various Churches. For things should no t be loved for the sake of places, but places for the sake of good things. Therefore select from each of the Churches whatever things are devout, religious, and right; and when you have bound them, as it were, into a Sheaf, let the minds of the English grow accustomed to it.”
for nearly 200 years four strands of Christianity survive in English Church:
1. left over Romano-British church from pre-5c. Christian influence
2. Celtic Churches – indigenous churches in: Scotland, Northumbria, Wales
3. Churches established by missions from Gaul 4. Churches established by missions from Rome (Augustine) = latest to arrive. Still saw only one Christian Church.
Constant tension between uniformity (Rome) & variety, centralization (Rome) & independence. Frequently it was church officials who favoured uniformity & monarchs who favoured measure of national independence
BRITISH/CELTIC: ROMAN:
indigenous, variety, independence foreign, uniformity, centralization 601 – First cathedral built in England 602 – Earliest Anglo-Saxon code of law: Laws of Aethelberht
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603 – Augustine tries, but fails, to reach agreement with Celtic Church surviving in Britain but at variance with Rome on questions of discipline & practice
609 – All Saints’ Day (a.k.a. All Hallows’ Day) first celebrated on May 13th when Pope Boniface IV dedicated Pantheon in Rome to the Virgin Mary
610 – Pretzels invented by Italian monk who uses them as rewards to children who learn prayers
610 – Muhammad’s reported vision of Allah on Mount Hira (aged 40), begins to receive words that came to him for next 22 years & eventually become Koran
612 – Muhammad begins to preach in Mecca until 622 614 – Fall of Jerusalem to Persians 619 – Muhammad’s wife dies 620 – Vikings begin invading Ireland
622 – Muhammad (“Praised One”) fled from Mecca to Medina, emigration called “Hegira” (year one for Muslims) – official starting point for Muslim era
624 – Buddhism becomes established religion of Japan 625 – Paulinus of Rome comes to convert Northumbria to Christianity 625 – Muhammad begins dictating Koran
625–638 – Papacy of Honorious I showed great interest in church in Spain & British Isles, did much to reform education of the clergy, became involved in Monotheletism, doctrine declaring Christ operated with but one will, although he had two natures, opposed intent of Council of Chalcedon
626 – King Edwin of Northumbria founds Edinburgh & begins Christianization
630 – Mecca falls to Muhammad’s army
632 – Death of Muhammad (aged 62) – Abu Bakr named first Caliph to succeed Muhammad
632 – East Anglia Christianized
635 – Muslims begin conquest of Persia & Syria. – to 642 take Fertile Crescent (Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamian, Persian & Byzantine Empires)
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635 – Aidan, monk from Iona founded Lindisfarne
635 – Christianization of Wessex
636 – Southern Irish Church submits to Roman Catholicism
636 – Arab conquest of Palestine; Muslim rule established.
638 – Jerusalem seized by armies of Islam
640 – Library of Alexandria, “The Center of Western Culture,” with 300,000 ancient papyrus scrolls, completely destroyed by fire
641 – Muslims control Syria, Palestine & Egypt
644-650 – Muslims conquer Cyprus, Tripoli in N. Africa & establish Muslim rule in Iran & Afghanistan
c.640 – Caliph Uthman (3rd Caliph of Islam) has Koran written down
648 – Emperor Constans II issues “The Typos” limiting Christian teachings to that defined in first five ecumenical councils. Pope Martin I (d. 655) refuses to sign Typos, is seized & banished to Crimea where he dies
651 – Arab conquest of Persia complete 656 – Uthman ibn Affan – son-in-law of Muhammad (3rd Caliph) assassinated 657 – Hilda establishes monastery for men & women at Whitby 661 – Omayyad Dynasty in Islam
663 – Synod of Whitby summoned by King Oswy of Northumbria when discovers he & wife celebrate Easter on different days, King having accepted British practice, wife Roman (meant King finished Lent feasting at Easter while Queen still fasting). Celtic Church arguing for flexibility allowing for local & indigenous practice. King impressed by claims of authority for Roman Pope so Roman custom adopted. Wilfred of Ripon speaking on behalf of Pope – “Though your fathers were ho ly, do you think that their small number, in a corner of the remotest island, is to be preferred before the universal church of Christ throughout the world?” Celtic Christian Church begins decline
668 – Theodore of Tarsus (602-690) sent to England by Pope Vitalian & consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury – works on drawing together factions in England
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673 – Theodore of Tarsus (7th Archbishop of Canterbury) summons & presides over first Synod of whole Church in England (Council of Hertford) named “Ecclesia Anglicana” – still free from Roman control, ties with Rome strengthened but papal supremacy still not established
673-735 – St. Bede the Venerable father of English history 674 – Arab conquest reaches Indus River 674 – Churches in England fitted with glass windows for first time
680-81 – Third Council of Constantinople. (Sixth Ecumenical Council) convoked by Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV. The council attended by more than 150 bishops from all over world & presided over by papal legates. Just as there are in Christ two natures, divine & human, so there is in Christ not only a divine but also a human will
condemned Monotheletism very clearly by defining orthodox faith as acceptance of a separate will & operation in each of the natures of Chr ist. It also condemned several churchmen as Monothelites, among them an earlier pope, Honorius I.
680-754 – St. Boniface, “Apostle of Germany”
687- Pepin of Heristal, a Merovingian ruler, unites Frankish territories & builds centre of his kingdom in Be lgium. Succeeded by his son, Charles Martel, who creates an alliance with the Christian Church, allowing the Merovingian Dynasty (& Christianity) to expand into Germany. Pepin the Short succeeds his father, Charles Martel, strengthens the convergence of Benedictine missionaries & Frankish expansion
691 – Dome of the Rock Islamic Mosque completed in Jerusalem
692 – The Quinsext Council or The Council of Trullo held in Constantinople made 102 canonical regulations – married men may be priests, only celibates may be bishop, Christians should honour resurrection by not kneeling on Sundays
695 – Spain begins persecution of Jews
end 7th beginning 8th Cents. – Monophysite heresy minimizes human side of the Incarnate God, contributes to Iconoclastic Controversy (752-842)
700 – Psalms translated into Anglo-Saxon, Lindsisfarne Gospels produced
700 – Benedictine missionaries complete conversion of England begun by St. Gregory the Great
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700 – Isaac of Nineveh d. 700 – Koran edited & begins to reach final form 700 – Buddhism officially established in Tibet; beginnings of Vajrayanna school 710 – First permanent capital of Japan established at Nara 711 – Muslims conquer Spain 712 – Yashumaru Ono completes Kojiki, first history of Japan 716 – Boniface, “the Apostle of Germany,” sets out to bring gospel to pagan lands
718 – Pelayo, a noble Visigoth who has been elected king, defeats Muslim Army in Alcama in neighbourhood of Covadonga, thus beginning the Christian Reconquest of Spain
c.725 – Earliest known mechanical clock built in China
726 – Byzantine emperor Leo III (c.680-741) begins “Iconoclastic Controversy” by banning worship of religious images (icons)
732 – Battle of Tours, Charles Martel turns back Muslim invasion of Europe
735 – Venerable Bede , Anglo-Saxon Benedictine scholar, writes the History of the English Church and People in Latin, generally regarded as best writing of medieval history
c.740 – Earliest known printed newspaper appears in China
750 – first great English epic poem, Beowulf, written in Old English. The work is anonymous & untitled until 1805. It is a Christian poem that exemplifies early medieval society in England & shows roots in Old Testament Law
750 – Irish monks establish early medieval art. Greatest surviving product of these monks is the Book of Kells, a Gospel book of decorative art
750 – Feudal system starts to emerge in Europe. Feudalism – system of obligations that bound lords & subjects in Europe during Middle Ages. King owned all or most of land, gave to leading nobles in return for loyalty & military service. Nobles held land that peasants, including serfs were allowed to farm in return for peasants’ labour & a portion of their produce. Under feudalism, people were born with permanent position in society.
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751 – St. Boniface (d.754) anoints Pepin the Short as a divinely sanctioned king, thus Frankish monarchy becomes fused into the papal order
The western European empire, based on the alliance between Frankish monarchy & Latin Church, provides an image of Western cultural unity for Europeans lost since fall of the Roman Empire, though it does not last long
753 – Synod of Hieria called by Constantine V decrees all icons should be destroyed
756 – “Donation of Pepin” in which Pepin the Short officially bestowed upon pope territories belonging to Ravenna thus providing legal basis for erection of Papal States in Italy as territory under sovereign control of popes
762-775 – “decade of blood” during which hundreds of Christians mostly monks imprisoned, tortured & even killed for habouring & honouring icons
768 – Pepin’s son, Carolus Magnus (Charlemagne ), succeeds father becoming one of most important rulers of medieval history. Empire, known as Carolingian dynasty, eventually includes much of central Europe, northern & central Italy in addition to realms already conquered by Frankish rule. Charlemagne’s system of government divides the vast realm into different regions, ruled by local “counts” who are overseen by representatives of Charlemagne’s own court
In addition, to aid expansion & administration of the kingdom, Charlemagne promotes what is later called the “Carolingian Renaissance.” Prior to this revival of learning, nearly entire kingdom (with exception of Benedictine England) was illiterate due to decay of Roman Empire
Director of the “renaissance” is Anglo-Saxon Benedictine Alcuin, who receives learning from student of Bede. Alcuin sets up schools, sees to the copying of classical Latin texts & develops new handwriting
778 – Army of Charlemagne suffers defeat of Roncesvalles at hands of the Vascons; death of Roland
787 – The Second Nicean Council (7th Ecumenical) meets – last of the seven church councils commonly accepted as authoritative by both Roman Catholic & Eastern Orthodox churches. Votes to allow veneration but not the worship of icons
787 – Danes invade England for first time
788 – Shankara b. in India systematizes advaita from the Vedas & the Upanishads d. 820
792 – Caroline Books given by Charle magne to Pope in Rome attacking legitimacy of empire in East in order to have himself recognized as sole ruler in Christendom thus bringing about Holy Roman Empire combining E. & W. accusing E. of
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idolatry because of icon veneration & of dropping words “& the Son” (filioque) from Nicene Creed
794 – Japanese capital city moved to Kyoto
9c. – one of most significant in church history – period of renaissance in E. & increasing centralization in W. around papacy
800-1200 – Jews experience “golden age” of creativity & toleration in Spain under Muslim rule
800 – Charlemange “Charles the Great” (c.742-814) Christmas Day is crowned Holy Roman Emperor of all Romans by Pope Leo III (750-816) at Saint Peter’s Basillica in Rome. This coronation marks beginning of new relationship between church & state, with emperor’s temporal authority depending upon spiritual blessing of pope. Coronation opposed by East, symbolized theocratic nature of medieval empire (Holy Roman Empire lasted until 1806)
800 – Ch’an & Pure Land Buddhism become dominant schools in China; establishment of Tendai & Shingon schools in Japan
801 – Vikings begin selling slaves to Muslims
806 – Hien Tsung becomes Emperor of China. During his reign shortage of copper leads to introduction of paper money
808 – Pope Leo III – reacts against charges of Charlemagne against E., has creed without filioque enshrined in sliver tablets on doors of St. Peter’s
c.810-c.877 – John Scotus Irishman known as Erigena, arrives at Court of France, translates Pseudo-Dionysisus from Greek into Latin, all humans are microcosm of universe, that which is shared, the essence of all things is God
843 – Worship of icons restored in East by Byzantine emperor Michael III (839 – 867), ending “Iconclastic Controversy”
850 – Acropolis of Zimbabwe built in Rhodesia 856 – earthquake in Corinth kills 45,000 861-886 – first open clashes between E & W Christians
861 – Pope Nicholas calls council in Constantinople which affirms Photius as rightful patriarch, decision rejected by Pope Nicholas who calls another council in Rome in 863 proclaiming Ignatius bishop of Constantinople – decision ignored
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863 – Cyril & Methodius, Greek brothers, evangelize Serbs. Cyril develops Cyrillic alphabet still basis for Slavo nic used in liturgy of Russian church, creates hostility with missionaries from Latin Church who believe official language of church should be only Hebrew, Latin & Greek
867 – Photian Schism between Eastern & Western churches begins during first patriarchy of Photius (c.820-891). Photius excommunicates Pope Nicholas I (c.800-867) during dispute over various issues, but especially use in Western church of filioque clause in Nicene Creed (meaning: “and from the son”), not accepted in East. This had been added to statement that Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father. The schism leads to Photius’ deposition, but he later manages to achieve reconciliation with Rome.
868 – The Diamond Sutra printed in China, world’s oldest printed book 869 – Cyril & Methodius go to Rome – Pope Hadrian II blesses their work particularly
use of native language in liturgy
869-70 – Fourth Coucil of Constantinople, never accepted by Orthodox Church, which instead recognizes council of 880 that supported Photius. Council of 869 was convoked at the suggestion of Basil I, the new Byzantine emperor, to confirm the restoration of St. Ignatius of Constantinople to the see that Photius had resigned.
Photius had already been condemned, without a hearing, at a Roman synod. At Constantinople his defense was cut short. When he refused to sign his own condemnation, he was excommunicated. These councils intensify bitterness between East & West.
late 9c. – W. enters one of darkest periods of history – new waves of invasions destroy security created by empire of Charlemagne, Church suffers from domination of lay lords, communication with E. virtually cut off
871 – King Alfred the Great of England constructs system of government & education allowing for unification of smaller Anglo-Saxon states in 9th & 10th. Alfred responsible for codification of English law, public interest in local government & reorganization of army. Founds schools & promotes Anglo-Saxon literacy & establishment of national culture. Dies in 899 CE.
874 – Vikings settle in Iceland
877 – John Scotus Erigena d. – only theologian of note in W. during 9c.brought strong influence of E. theology of Dionysius & Maximus to W. church
879 – Council in Constantinople presided over by Photius clarifies traditional privileges of Pope of Rome in E. (accepted by Pope John VIII), creed affirmed without filioque
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900 – Mayans emigrate to Yucatan Peninsula.
910 – Benedictine monastery of Cluny in Burgundy becomes place of monastic reform. Two major innovations: direct subjection of monasteries to pope (avoiding the oversight of secular, local & ecclesiastical powers) & building of “daughter monasteries” subordinate to Cluniac “family,” which grows to sixty-seven monasteries by 1049 CE & over 1,000 by mid-12th cent.
930 – Althing, oldest body of representative government in Europe, established in Iceland by Vikings
c.950 – Catholicism is prevalent & dominant religion throughout Europe
950 – Europe enters Dark Ages
950 – Olga of Russia who ruled Russia for seventeen years converts to Christianity
960 – Athanasius of Mt. Athos (d. 1000) founds Great Lavra opening way for development of monastic republic on Holy Mountain
960 – Mieszko I becomes first ruler of Poland (dies 992)
971 – world’s first university founded in Cairo
973-1002 – Otto II & Otto III of Holy Roman Empire distracted by Italian Wars, Holy Roman Empire weakens
977 – Prince Vladimir of Russia decides nation needs monotheistic religion, dispatches ambassadors to enquire about religious beliefs & practices, adopts Eastern faith from Constantinople – Byzantine conversion of Russia to Christianity, founding of Russian Orthodox Church
981 – Eric the Red exiled from Iceland, settles in new land calls Greenland in order to attract settlers
988 – Vladimir I (c.956-1015) grand duke of Kiev, declares Eastern Orthodox Christianity to be official state religion of Russia in attempt to unify & guide Russian people
995 – Japanese literary & artistic golden age begins under Emperor Fujiwara Michinaga (ruled 995-1028)
c.1000 – Scandinavia & Hungary convert to Christianity c.1000 – Chinese perfect gunpowder
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1002 – Leif Ericsson explores North American coast
1003 – Vikings sail to Vinland (Newfoundland)
1009 – Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem destroyed by Muslim armies under Egyptian ruler Al Haqim
1012 – Germany begins to persecute heretics
1012 – Camaldolese Order founded by St. Romuald at Camaldoli – ideal was barest minimum of communal ties
1016 – Danes overrun most of England, 21 year old King Canute acknowledged as King of England, dies 1035
1021 – Caliph al-Hakim proclaims himself to be divine & founds Druze sect
1022 – Saint Simeon the New Theologian d. – wrote influential treatises about indwelling of Holy Spirit in Christians
1033-1109 – St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury
1048 – Al Haqim’s successor rebuilds Church of Holy Sepuchre
1050 – Theravada Buddhism becomes official religion of Burma; other forms of Buddhism flourish throughout Southeast Asia
1050-1200 – first agricultural revolution of Medieval Europe begins in 1050 CE with shift to northern lands for cultivation, improved climate from 700 CE to 1200 CE in western Europe, widespread use & perfection of new farming devices
Technological innovations include use of heavy plow, three- field system of crop rotation, mills for processing cloth, brewing beer, crushing pulp for paper manufacture, & widespread use of iron & horses. With agricultural advancements, Western towns & trade grow exponentially, Western Europe returns to a money economy
1053 – Pope sends legates to Constantinople in attempt to restore communion between E. & W. – Michael Cerularius refuses to hear papal legates
1054 (July 16) – Cardinal Humbert of Italy head of papal delegation tired of waiting, irritated by lack of respect shown Roman ambassadors places documents of anathema & excommunication against Michael Cerularius (patriarch of Constantinople) on altar of Holy Wisdom cathedral (Hagia Sophia in Constantinople) officially due to removal of filioque from Creed (West included in Nicene Creed statement Holy Spirit proceeds from Father and Son/Filioque,
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added to Creed in Spanish Church from 6c.) & marriage of Orthodox priests. Cerularius excommunicates everyone associated with July 16 event mostly for divergent liturgical practices such as use of unleavened bread for eucharist
1057 – Earthquake in Cilicia (Asia Minor) kills 60,000
1059 – Pope Nicholas II establishes College of Cardinals as body responsible for electing popes
1066 – William the Conqueror invades England & claims English throne at Battle of Hastings. Banners blessed by Pope Alexander II – Oct. 14 Battle of Hastings, defeated King Harold, crowned king of England. As result England became, & remained for four centuries, unquestionably part of Europe, leading to closer integration between English Church & Church of Rome. However, William refused to do homage to Pope or to allow any Church law to become effective or any citizen to be excommunicated without his consent – thus, united Church & State under monarch.
Because William is both King of England & Duke of Normandy, Norman Conquest fuses French & English cultures. Language of England evolves into Middle English with English syntax & grammar & heavily French vocabulary
French art & literature prevail over previous English art & literature, French language eventually becomes language of political realm. William achieves political stability in England with introduction of feudal system which progresses over next two centuries into national monarchy.
1071 – Turkish armies are victorious over Byzantine forces in Battle of Manzikert, leading to sharp decline in power of Byzantine Empire
1073 – Pope Gregory VII (c. 1020 – 1085) begins widespread & famous reforms of church practice, liturgies & administration
1074 – Pope Gregory VII excommunicates all married priests
1075 – Investiture fight begins between Pope Gregory VII & Holy Roman emperor Henry IV (1050 – 1106) Gregory denies Henry traditional right to appoint bishops. Henry, who does not accept this is eventually excommunicated & deposed in 1077, but Henry & his supporters, along with an army, drive Gregory into exile during an invasion of Italy (1081 – 1083)
1076 – First recorded execution in England by the axe: Earl of Huntingdon
1077 – Henry IV, German King & Holy Roman Emperor readmitted to communion after having been excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII. 1080 again excommunicated, set up antipope Clement III who crowned Henry Emperor 1084
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1079–1142 – Peter Abelard, philosopher & theologian. Jesus’ life = dramatic demonstration of love that changes people, obstacle to reconciliation with God is in people so they need to be changed
1080 – Order of the Hospital of St. John founded in Italy. This special order of knights was dedicated to guarding a pilgrim hospital, or hostel, in Jerusalem. Order not officially acknowledged until 1113 by the Pope
1084 – Carthusian Order – strictly contemplative, founded by St. Bruno at Grande Chartreuse in Alps
1085 – At Council of Clermont First Crusade (out of total of eight official crusades) called by Pope Urban II (c.1035-1099) against Muslims in the Holy Lands
1085-1148 – William of St. Thierry Cistercian like Bernard, emphasized love-mysticism
1090-1153 – Bernard, St. – Abbot of Clairvaux
1093 – Anselm becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, devoted monk & theologian wrote Cur Deus Homo? (Why Did God Become Man?), exploring atonement
1096-1099 – First Crusade under Pope Urban II, actually carried out in effort to aid Byzantine Christians against Muslim invaders
1096-1142 – Hugh of St. Victor close tie between reason & mysticism, most important of two Victorines (other Richard of St. Victor d. 1173)
1098 – Cistercians founded at Citeaux by Robert of Molesme as stricter Benedictines
1098 – Crusaders take Antioch from Turks
1098-1179 – Hildegard of Bingen (Germany)
1099 (July 15) – Crusaders recapture Jerusalem from Turks, killing 40,000, driven out by late 13c.
beginning 12c. – Aristotle translated into Latin. By end 13c. old theological way of looking at world & humans in world replaced by attempt to adopt theology to technical language of Aristotle
1100 – Polynesian islands colonized.
1100 – new asceticism sought for monks who wish to engage in contemplation & self- examination. Two new orders created: the Carthusian & the Cistercian. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, leader of Cistercians, establishes 343 monasteries before he dies
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Accompanying the fervent worship of Jesus during this period is the pronouncement of the Virgin Mary as a saint. This is the first time a woman is given central significance in Christian religion
1100-1135 – Henry I of England 1100’s–1200’s – Sufi orders founded 1100–1300 – Construction of cathedral in Chartres, France 1108-1137 – Louis VI of France
1109 – St. Anselm of Canterbury d. – wrote of “ontological proof” for existence of God, defended doctrine of filioque & “satisfaction theory” of atonement in which contended Christ on cross was adequate sacrifice necessary to satisfy justice & wrath of God the Father
1112 – St. Bernard (1090-1153) with 30 noblemen of Burgundy enter monastery at Citeaux,
1115 establish house at Clairvaux which soon becomes one of chief centres of Cistercian order. At death Cistercian Order consists of 350 Abbeys & 150 dependent cells. Promoted mystical vision of rhapsodic love in which Church described in erotic terms as bride of Christ, tendency to be anti-intellectual
1119 – Hugues de Payens founds Order of Knights Templars in Jerus alem. Name comes from fact headquarters on the site of Solomon’s Temple
1121- Peter Abelard castrated for his teachings
1122 -Diet of Worms finally brings end to long-standing investiture fight with a compromise which retains church authority over Europe
1123 – First Lateran Council. Summoned by Pope Calixtus II to signal end of the investiture controversy by confirming the Concordat of Worms (1122) held in the Lateran Palace, Rome, making it the first council to be held in Western Europe. Many of the council’s decrees became part of the evolving corpus of medieval Latin canon law.
1123 – Death of Omar Khayyam, Persian poet
1123 – Japan’s ex-emperor Shirikawa imposes Buddhist prohibition against killing any living thing
1124 – fire in Kiev reported to have destroyed 600 church edifices
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1135-1204 – Life of Moses Ben-Maimon, or Maimonides, one of most influential Jewish philosophers during Middle Ages used reason to fight growing Jewish mysticism
1136 – abbé Suger develops the rose window
1139 – Second Lateran Council. Convened at the Lateran Palace, Rome, by Pope Innocent II, attempts to heal wounds left by schism of the antipope Anacletus II (d. 1138) & condemns theories of Arnold of Brescia
Among council’s canons were prohibitions of clerical concubinage & marriage & of the use of bows & crossbows in fighting Christians; simony & usury also condemned
1140 – Sefer ha-Kusari of Spanish rabbi Judah ben Samuel ha-Levi argues that all revealed religious thought is superior to rational & philosophical
1140 – Synod of Sens dominated by St.Bernard of Clairvaux, Arnold of Brescia (1090– 1155) condemned. Had gained prominence in struggle at Brescia between bishop & city government, but became sharply critical of church, declaring secular powers only ought to hold property because believed church being tainted by temporal power
Peter Abelard submitted, but Arnold did not. Pope Innocent II ordered Arnold exiled & his books burned. In 1155 he was tried by the Roman Curia as a political rebel (not a heretic) & executed by secular authorities. To the end he was idolized by the Roman populace.
1144 – Fall of Edessa (crusader state)
1147 – Second Crusade begins following appeal by St. Bernard of Clarivaux. Lasts until 1149
1151 – End of Toltec Empire in Mexico 1154 – Chartres Cathedral built 1154-1189 – Henry II of England 1155 – Pope Adrian IV gives Ireland to Henry II of England 1157 – Torture reportedly introduced as official tool in Denmark 1161 – Explosives used in China at Battle of Ts’ai-shih
1162 – Theobold, Archbishop of Canterbury dies, Henry thinks, by making friend Thomas a Beckett both Chancellor & Archbishop of Canterbury will get his own
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way in matters of both Church & State. Becket unwilling to be made Archbishop, King insists. Finally Becket agrees but does not act as King wants, resigns as Chancellor, gives up luxurious life, pours energies into maintaining what holds to be rights & privileges of Church. Since William Conqueror all bishops, priests & clerks in minor orders (ie. virtually all educated people) were tried before Church courts for any offence & were not subject to King’s courts. Most severe punishment church courts could give was to reduce offender to level of layman & consequently make them subject to King’s courts. Henry wanted to bring all secular offences under King’s courts, making all people subject to same justice – also wanted power to decide which were spiritual & which secular offences. Becket refused, assassinated (Dec. 29, 1170 in his own Canterbury Cathedral). Henry forced to do penance & scourged by monks of Canterbury.
1167 – Oxford University founded, around same time as University of Paris – both become influence towards renaissance & reformation
1170–1221 – St. Dominic, founder of Order of Friars Preachers/ Dominicans/ Black Friars
1173 – Peter Waldo founds Waldensians, reform movement emphasizing poverty, preaching & Bible. He & followers eventually condemned as heretics & Waldensians suffer great persecution for centuries
1175 – Rinzai school of Zen established in Japan
1179 – Third Lateran Council. Convened at Lateran Palace, Rome, by Pope Alexander III after the Peace of Venice (1178) had reconciled him with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I, it included an envoy from the Orthodox Greeks. The most important legislation was the first canon, which confirmed that the election of the pope was thereafter to be in the hands of the cardinals alone, two thirds being necessary for election.
The council also condemned usury, tournaments, & brigandage. The Albigenses & Waldenses were condemned. The legislation from this council formed an important part of the evolving canonical tradition in the 12th & 13th centuries
1182 – Philip II banishes Jews from France 1182-1226 – St. Francis of Assissi 1187 – Crusaders lose Jerusalem to Saladin who becomes most famous Muslim 1189 – Last known Norse visit to North America.
1189 – Third Crusade begins, led by Frederick Barbarossa, Philip of France & Richard of England. Frederick drowns next year on way to Palestine – German folklore
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develops is hidden in a mountain waiting to return & lead Germany to new & brighter future. Crusade ends 1192
1189 – Jews massacred at coronation of Richard I
1192 – truce between Richard & Saladin leaves battle for Jerusalem unresolved
1198–1216 – power of medieval papacy reaches its height with reign of Innocent III (1161-1216) who manages to excommunicate both Holy Roman emperor Otto IV (1182-1218) & King John of England (c.1167-1216) in 1209
1199 – Liverpool, England, founded
after 12c.- centrality of monastic theology in Western Church comes to an end. 13 c. = new age in Christian world. Platonic elements which had served earlier theologians as vehicle for expressing understanding of huma n condition through life of prayer & contemplation, replaced by or codified in accordance with Aristotelian categories of purely abstract & theoretical nature
c.1200 – Jewish mystic movement Cabala develops in France & spreads to Spain. Cabalists believe every word, letter & number in Bible can reveal hidden mysteries via cabalistic interpretation
1200 – Muslim invaders deal death blow to Buddhism in India after long period of decline
1200 – Pure Land (Jodo) school of Buddhism established in Japan 1200 – Aztecs begin to establish empire in Mexico 1200-1280 – Beatrice of Nazareth Belgian Cistercian mystic, associated with Beguines 1202 – Fourth Crusade launched
1204 – Venetians convince soldiers of Fourth Crusade to attack Constantinople before moving on to Holy Land (= final confirmation of schism between E & W). Residents of City suffer worst devastation in Constantinople’s history; Venice reaps the spoils
After Constantinople is sacked by Western Crusaders on Fourth Crusade, Latin domination of Eastern Church begins. Thomas Morosini of Venice installed as patriarch of Constantinople, increasing rivalry between Eastern & Western churches
1206 – rosary reported given to St. Dominic by an apparition of Mary
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1206 – St. Francis of Assisi, age twenty-five, begins twenty year allegiance to Christ until death 1226. Founded Franciscan order to imitate life of Jesus by embracing poverty. St. Francis wins support of Pope Innocent III.
1206 – Mongol leader Temujin proclaimed “Genghis Khan,” “emperor within the Seas”
1206-1280 – Albertus Magnus teacher of Thomas Aquinas – unity of science & mysticism
1207 – Church/State tension flares in England under King John, one of Henry II’s sons (1167-1216) – Crown & local Church couldn’t agree on who should be new ArchbishopofCanterbury. PopeInnocentIIIchoseStephenLangton& consecrated him in Rome in 1207 in violation of long-established tradition King should have some say in such matters. John became indignant, prevented Langton from coming to Canterbury until 1213 at which point John gave in as Pope had called on France to enforce his rule over England. John was forced to lay his crown at the Pope’s feet & take oath of loyalty to Pope. Having thus surrendered his kingdom to the Pope he received it back as a vassal of Rome. English people were humiliated. (J.W.C. Wand = “momentary lapse in fear of an imminent French invasion”)
1207-1273 – Jalaluddin Rumi Persian poet b. in Balkh, Afghanistan Sp. 30
1208 – Crusade against the Albingensians (also known as Cathars) & Waldensians launched in southern France by Pope Innocent III. In Beziers alone in 1209, at least 20,000 people massacred
1208 – First recorded witchcraft trial in England. Gideon, alleged to be sorcerer, is acquitted
1209 – Cambridge University founded in England
1210-1280 – Mechtild of Magdeburg (Germany) associated with Beguines (women who lived strict religious lives but never adopted rule & were condemned as heretics because challenged church authority)
1212 – Spain reconquers Iberian peninsula from Muslims in name of Christianity 1212 – Childrens’ Crusade launched. More than 50,000 children sold into slavery 1214 – King John of England defeated by French at battle of Bouvines 1214-1294 – Francis Bacon
1215 – Innocent III organizes Fourth Lateran Council in Rome in order to discuss & define central dogmas of Christianity. It was one of the most important councils
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ever held. Its canons sum up Innocent’s ideas for church: recognizes necessity of Eucharist understood in terms of transubstantiation, penance as sacrament for salvation, prescribing annual confession for all Christians, call for revitalisation of preaching in church, strengthens authority of popes, requires communion at Easter & annual confession as minimum requirement for church membership, called Easter duty. Priests forbidden to participate in trials by ordeal. Also called for Fifth Crusade under papal guidance by sea.
By 13c. – writings of ancient Greeks pouring into Europe undermining faith & prompting heresy
1215 – Magna Carta signed. English barons force King John to agree to statement of their rights, established principle king could not levy taxes without consent of Parliament & no free person in England could be deprived of liberty or property except through legal process. Pope Innocent III nullifies Magna Carta
Great mistake to think of separation of English Church from Rome solely as doing of Henry VIII. All along English Church had been resisting Rome where it seemed Pope claimed too much power for himself.
1216 – Spanish theologian Dominic (1170-1221) founds his own Dominican order of monks dedicated to preaching, scholarship & teaching. Order authorized by Innocent III. Purpose to convert Muslims & Jews & to put end to heresy. Dominicans eventually become main administrators of inquisitorial trials.
1217 – Fifth Crusade ends in failure
1217-1274 – Bonaventure Franciscan monk developed philosophical, theological & mystical side of Francis’ thought
1218 – Newgate Prison, Lo ndon’s debtor prison completed
1219 – Rumi forced to flee Balkh with father who being attacked by religious enemies & foresaw taking of city by Mongols – for 10 years Rumi & family wandered all over Asia Minor & Arabia
1219 – Sava consecrated first archbishop of Serbian lands by Manuel patriarch of Constantinople
1220 – First General Chapter of Dominican Order under St. Dominic (1170-1221)
1221 – Genghis Kahn & Mongols enter Persia
1222 – András II of Hungary issues A Golden Bull exempting clergy from taxation & refusing land or offices to Jews or foreigners
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1223 – Genghis Khan invades Russia, distances Russia from Western culture
1225-1274 – Life of theologian Thomas Aquinas, Italian Dominican monk & priest, most influential theologian of Middle Ages, codifies Catholic theology in works such as Summa Theologica, marking high point of medieval scholastic movement. Sought to reconcile faith & reason by showing that elements of Aristotle’s philosopher were compatible with Christianity, understanding of being (existence), principle of analogy – similarities between created beings up the scale between simples forms & God who created them
Scholasticism – educational tradition of Medieval Schools, method of philosophical & theological speculation which aims at better understanding of revealed truths, emphasis upon rational justification & systematic presentation of Christian theology
1226 – Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury divides Bible into chapters
1226-1270 – Louis IX (St. Louis) of France
1228 – Sixth Crusade
1229 – Rumi goes with father to live in Konya (southern Turkey) where Sultan built a college for Rumi’s father where he taught until death 1231, succeeded by Rumi
1231 – Earliest legislation on topic of torture in Italy 1232 – Emperor Frederick II issues edict for Empire entrusting hunting out of heretics to
state officials = beginning of Inquisition
1232 – Earliest known use of rockets in war between Mongols & Chinese
1233 – Holy Inquisition is established by Pope Gregory IX (c.1155-1241) to abolish heresy wherever it can be found. Dominicans assigned responsibility to carry out Inquisition. Forbids reading of Bible by lay persons. Continues to end of 15c.
1235-1315 – Ramon Lull Franciscan, logic of science
1240 – Soto School of Zen established in Japan
1241 – William Marise, pirate, first person recorded hanged, drawn, & quartered in England
1240 – Mongols capture Moscow & destroy Kiev 1244 – Rumi reported (by son Sultan Valad in Secret World) to have 10,000 disciples
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1244 (Dec. 3) – Shams of Tabriz killed by Rumi’s followers 1247 – traditional date for death of Robin Hood 1248 – Seventh Crusade 1248-1309 – Angela of Foligno mysticism based on facts of Christ’s life & death 1250 – Abolition of trial by fire or water in England
1250 – True Pure Land (Shin Jodo) school of Buddhism founded in Japan
1250–1277 – height of Scholasticism
1252 – papacy approves use of torture for religious disobedience, following Innocent III’s brutal “inquisitions” against heresy (Waldensian & Albigensian heretics)
1256 – First recorded official use of torture in Spain
1258 (Feb. 10) – Mongols conquer Baghdad killing 10,000 inhabitants
1258 – Flagellants begin physically punishing themselves in belief will prevent plagues
1260 – Date that the 1988 Vatican-sponsored scientific study places origin of Shroud of Turin
c.1260-1327 – Meister Eckhart (Germany) first of “Rhineland” mystics – emphasizes search for inner ground of soul
1261 – Michael Palaeologus (1224-1282) drives Latin rulers out of Constantinople & reestablishes local Eastern Orthodox Rule
1265 – Dante Alighieri born in Florence. Italian poet & philosopher. Writes The Divine Comedy perhaps greatest literary expression of Middle Ages – in Italian verse. Dante is extensively educated in literature, philosophy & Scholastic theology. His “Comedy” is saturated with belief of earthly immortality through worthy deeds & preparation for everlasting life
1265 – Thomas Aquinas writes Summa Theologica in which attempts to synthesize philosophy with Western Christian tradition. In process gives impression God can be discussed in same way as other philosophical ideas by prefacing discussion of God with rational demonstration of God’s existence using natural phenomena – suggests possible to know God in same way as other realities ie. intellectually through theoretical reason
1267 – Kublai Kahn establishes city of Beijing 66
1269 – Louis IX of France orders Jews to wear purple badge 1271 – Marco Polo sets off to visit the court of Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan) 1273 – Aquinas completes Summa Theologica
1273 (Dec. 17) – death of Mevlana Jalaluddin Rumi in Konya, southern Turkey – after death son, Sultan Velad developed his vision & spiritual practices into structures of Mevlevi order
1274 – Mongols, led by Kublai Khan, attempt to invade Japan 1275 – Meister Eckhart joins Dominicans age about 15 1277 – Roger Bacon imprisoned for heresy 1280 – Eyeglasses invented & later improved in late medieval period
1285-1349 – William of Ockham, English philosopher – no true metaphysical thought can even be attempted, words are empty of content & ideas have no universal application, “Ockham’s razor” – explanations should be kept simple (14c. Nominalism – denied objective intelligibility of creation & of moral law)
1290 – Margaret, Maid of Norway, dies leaving a struggle for throne of Scotland – 13 people claim title of King
1291 – Saracene armies capture Acre, last Christian outpost in Palestine, thus officially ending Crusades, re-establishing Muslim rule in Middle East
1293-1381 – Jan van Ruysbroeck Flemish mystic – stages of mystical life (Rhineland mystic)
1295 – conversion of Mongol dynasty to Islam led to drastic losses for Nestorian Church in 14c. Remnant fled to mountains of Kurdistan where descendants survive as Assyrian Christians
1295-1366 – Henry Suso Rhineland mystic, student of Meister Ekchart 1296-1359 – Gregory Palamas Eastern Orthodox mystic influenced by Pseudo-
Dionysius
1296 – Edward I of England deposes John Balliol from Scottish throne, takes control of Scotland
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1297 – At Battle of Cambuskenneth, Scottish patriot William Wallace defeats an English army
1298 – longbow revolutionizes warfare at the Battle of Falkirk
14c. – mid. 17c. – RENAISSANCE (Galileo, Shakespeare, da Vinci, Michelangelo) beginning to think of “secular” & “sacred” affairs – realm for state as well as for church
1300 – Rome during celebration of Jubilee of Pope Boniface VIII seated on throne of Constantine with sword, crown & sceptre declared “I am Caesar – I am Emperor”
1300 – Theravada Buddhism becomes official religion of Thailand; Cambodia soon follows
1300-1349 – Richard Rolle “English School” of late medieval mysticism – emphasizes physicality of mystical experience (Rhineland mystic)
1300-1361 – Johannes Tauler (Rhineland mystic) – inner person became popular among Reformers
1302 – Pope Boniface VIII (c.1235-1303) issues papal bull Unum Sanctum, declares pope has supreme & final authority in all matters, both civic & spiritual
1302 (Jan 27) – Dante Alighieri fined & exiled from Florence by Catholic Church
1303 – Pope Boniface VIII is kidnapped by supporters of French King Philip IV (1268- 1314) after threatening to depose Philip. Boniface dies within a month.
1304-1374 – Life of Italian poet Petrarch
1305 – 70-year “Babylonian Captivity” of papacy begins when Pope Clement V (1260- 1314) moves papal residence & administrative offices to Avignon in France to escape political turmoil raging in Italy (1377 – Papacy returns to Rome)
1305 – First reported displaying head on London Bridge: Sir William Wallace, Scottish patriot
1306 – Philip IV expels Jews from France 1309 – Pope Clement V moves papacy to Avignon in France 1310 – First reported use of official torture in England: against Templars 1310 – Dante’s Divine Comedy
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1310 – Marguerite Porete d. French mystic, author The Mirror of Simple Souls, burned at stake as heretic
1311 – Council of Vienne condemns Beguines
1314 – Battle at Bannockburn: Robert Bruce defeats armies of Edward II gains Scottish independence. Edward I died 1307 on a march north to defeat Bruce
1315 – Bad weather & crop failure result in famine across northwestern Europe. Unsanitary conditions & malnutrition increase death rate. Even after revival of agricultural conditions, weather disasters reappear. Mixture of war, famine & plague in Late Middle Ages reduces population by half
1316 – Pope sends eight Dominican monks to Ethiopia in search of Prester John, a legendary Christian emperor
1321 – death of Dante Aligheri
1322 – Pope John XXII forbids contrapuntal music in churches
1325 – Aztecs found Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City)
1326 – Ottomans conquer Bursa & make it capital & set themselves up at head of Muslim empire
1327 – Edward III becomes king of England
1327 – (b. 1260) German Dominican Meister Eckhart defines individual soul as “spark” of the divine at its most basic element. By renouncing all knowledge of self, one is able to retreat into that “spark” & reach God. Most of his teachings are condemned by papacy.
Two bands of mysticism arise from Eckhart’s theories: heterodox, belief in unification of God & man on earth without aid of priests as intermediaries, & orthodox, belief in possibility of joining soul with God & awareness of divine presence in everyday life
1328 – England recognizes Scottish independence, with Robert Bruce as King.
1328 – Philippe VI (de Valois) becomes king of France, despite England’s better claim to throne through Edward III
1329 (March 27) – Pope John XXII condemns 29 propositions of Meister Eckhart
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1333 – St. Gregory Palamas defends Orthodox practice of hesychast spirituality & Jesus prayer
1335 – Pope Benedict XII issues sweeping reforms of monastic orders
1337 – Edward III of England claims throne of France – beginning Hundred Years’ War between France & England
1342-c.1415 – Julian of Norwich, anchoress, author Revelations of Divine Love 1343 – William of Ockham’s Dialogues argue for separation of church & state 1345 – Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris completed
1346 – council upholds teaching of Gregory of Palamas who distinguished between unknowable & incomprehensible Essence or Super-essence of God & actions, operations or energies of God which are truly uncreated & divine (such as divine light) communicated to humans by divine grace & open to human participation, knowledge & experience
1346 (Aug. 26) – Battle of Crecy major battle of 100 Years War – English bowmen defeat far superior French force led by Philippe VI, French losses (ca. 11,000, incl. 1,200 knights) exceed entire English army
1347 (Oct.) – Black Death begins in Sicily (bubonic plague) reaches Cyprus from eastern Asia, eventually wipes out more than 1⁄4 population of Western Europe, perhaps 25 million people. Cities worst hit: Avignon 50% (ca. 25,000), Paris 50% (ca. 50,000), London 1/3 (ca. 18,000). 200,000 villages in Europe wiped out
1347-1380 – Catherine of Siena mystic advisor to Pope Gregory XI
1348 – Black Death (bubonic plague) Jan. reaches France, Aug. reaches first reaches England, within 18 months 47% population dies, continues until early 1350 = central traumatic event in Western history
1348 – Jews blamed for Black Death systematically persecuted
1348 – Italian Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375 CE) begins writing Decameron, collection of stories about love, sex, adventure & trickery told by seven ladies & three men on a journey into country to escape Black Death
Boccaccio’s work is first literature written in narrative prose, realistic portrayal of men & women in stories, rather than blatantly moral or immoral as in earlier romances
1349 – new period of persecution of Jews sweeps Germany 70
1349 – William of Oakham d. – logic cannot be applied to theology
c.1350 – Renaissance begins in Italy to mid 17c. – often considered beginning of modern era
2nd 1⁄2 of 14c. – Cloud of Unknowing emphasis on “unknowing” God – part of Pseudo- Dionysius apophatic tradition
1350-1400 – anonymous Theologia Germanica rediscovered & popularized by Luther
1354 – Earliest extant documentation stating existence of Shroud of Turin.
1356 – Battle of Poitiers, major battle of 100 Year’s War (Sept. 19) English under Edward the Black Prince vs. 20,500 French under King Jean II. Bowmen throw French into confusion, English mounted flanks converge – 4,500 French killed, King Jean & sons captured, English losses light
1359 – Gregory of Palamas d. monk of Mt. Athos, practitioner of method of prayer called hesychasm (hesychia = silence)
1360 – recurrence of Black Death 1360 – Theravada Buddhism established in Laos 1367 – Pope Urban V returns to Rome, meets resistance, returns to Avignon, dies 1370
1368 – Ming Dynasty established in China by peasant’s son who had become a monk but later led 13-year rebellion against corrupt & ineffectual Mongol rulers. Ming means “brightness.” Dynasty continues until 1644
1369 – recurrence of Black Death
1376 – John Wycliffe (1329-1384) Oxford don, English philosopher, theologian, reformer, writes Civil Dominion calling for reforms in Church. Appointed
Vicar of Lutterworth. Argued Pope’s claims ill founded on Scripture. Questioned transubstantiation, argued Bible (which began to translate into English) only basis for Christian action & belief & preceded Pope in authority. “The Gospel by itself is a rule sufficient to rule the life of every Christian person on the earth, without any other rule.” Condemned in 1382. Less educated followers after death known as Lollards
1377 – Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) makes trip to Avignon to persuade Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome, he does but meets resistance in Rome. Dies there March 1378
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1378 – “Great Schism” begins when election of Urban VI (c.1318-1389) to papacy is challenged by French cardinals, who in turn elect Clement VII (d. 1394) to same office. Clement becomes known as “antipope” resides in Avignon. England supports Urban, France Clement. Both Rome & Avignon have rival popes for next 40 years. For 8 years three rival popes rule
c.1380 – John Wycliffe (c.1320-1384), English priest, begins first English translation of Bible
1380-1471 – Thomas a Kempis stresses practice of piety & asceticism, finest expression of “devotio moderna” which downplays Rhineland mystics concern with contemplation & speculative theology
1381 – English peasants’ revolt. Peasant army seizes London, beheads Archbishop of Canterbury & burns down Savoy Palace
1382 – John Wycliffe expelled from Oxford University because opposed traditional Church doctrines, later known as “Morning Star of the Reformation,” translates Latin Vulgate into English
1387 – Poet Geoffrey Chaucer begins work on masterpiece “The Canterbury Tales”
1394 – 1423 Benedict XIII is antipope at Avignon
1384 – John Purvey, follower of John Wycliffe, revises Wycliffe’s translation
late 14c. – Sir Gawain And The Green Knight – Arthurian romance sets up moral test- case exploring practic al implications of what it means to be faithful
1391 – Spanish Jews forced to convert to Catholisicm for sake of “social & sectarian uniformity”
d.1395 – Walter Hilton English mystic
1396 – Ottoman Turks conquer Bulgaria
1399 – In England, death penalty becomes punishment for heresy, many Lollards, Wycliffe’s lay followers, convert
1400 – Holy Roman Emperor Wenceslas IV deposed due to drunkenness
1400 – Czech students of John Wycliffe bring Wycliffism to Bohemian capital of Prague. Preacher John Hus (1373-1415 CE) adopts Wycliffe’s theories to support his own claims against ecclesiastical extravagance
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1400 – Northern provinces of Italy devise own systems of government. Government of Venice becomes a merchant oligarchy; Milan is ruled by dynastic despotism; Florence becomes a republic, ruled by rich. The three cities expand & conquer most of Northern Italy.
1401 – England introduces de Heretico Comburendo, giving Church power over heresy 1401-1464 – Nicholas of Cusa German mystic part of revival of Platonism in
Renaissance, emphasized incomprehensibility & paradoxicality of God
1408 – Council of Oxford forbids translations of Scriptures into vernacular unless & until fully approved by Church authority; sparked by Wycliffite Bible
1409 – Council of Pisa attempts to end Great Schism declaring both rival popes deposed & electing third: Alexander V. Previous two popes intransigent, resulting in three rival popes
1409 – Pope Alexander V publicly burns 200 of John Wycliffe’s writings
1412-1431 Joan of Arc
1413 – Margery Kempe d. mainly known as biographer of Julian
1414 – Lollard uprising in England fails. Some Lollards retreat underground & aid Protestant Reformation in sixteenth century
1414-1418 – Council of Constance 16th Ecumenical Council in Roman Catholic Church, largest Church meeting in medieval history
1415 – Council of Constance condemns Wycliffe’s works, except biblical translations which continue to be used with heretical prologue removed
1415 – John Hus travels to Council of Constance to propose reforms for Church. Upon arrival tried for heresy & burned at stake (July 6). His death encourages further revolt by his followers
1415 (Oct.25) – Battle of Agincourt Major Battle of 100 Years’ War English (mostly archers) under Henry V defeat 25,000 French under Constable d’Albert; French losses exceed 8,000, English – 400
1417 – Council of Constance ends Great Schism. Council gains secular support & elects Martin V as pope, deposing all three rival popes, also replaces papal monarchy with conciliar government, which recognizes a council of prelates as pope’s authority, mandates frequent meeting of council. This new period known as Italian territorial papacy lasts until 1517 CE.
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1420 – Hus’ supporters defeat German “crusaders.” Lower-class Hussites led by General John Zizka
1427 – Thomas a Kempis writes The Imitation of Christ, manual directing individual through Orthodox mysticism. Originally in Latin, translated into European languages for lay audience. Major themes concern path of Christian piety for those active in everyday life, communion with Christ, biblical meditation & moral life. Only sacrament suggested is Eucharist
1429 – Joan of Arc (Jeanne d’Arc; 1412-1431), peasant girl in France, seeks out French leader & relates her divinely-inspired mission to drive English out of France. She takes control of French troops & liberates most of central France
1430 – Joan of Arc captured & taken to England. English accuse her of being a witch, condemn her for heresy, publicly burned in city of Rouen
1430 – Andrew Rublev d. greatest Russian iconographer
1431-1449 – Council of Florence (originally Council of Basel) – anti-papal atmosphere, declared Council superior to pope & required all Popes to swear an oath upon election
1438 – Johannes Gutenberg invents printing press pioneering technology of movable type, creates first Bible printed with movable type in Mainz, Germany, press becomes means for disseminating new ideas, catalyzing political & theological change
1447-1510 – Catherine of Genoa mysticism spurred in part by neglect & abuse of husband, trauma becomes mystical, argues purgatory = stage on mystical path
1452-1519 – Leonardo da Vinci Italian artist, scientist, & inventor – great example of “Renaissance” man
1453 – last emperor of Byzantium, Constantine XI, leads force of 4,000 troops, succeeds in holding off 160,000 advancing Turks for seven weeks
1453 (May 29) – Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mohammed II defeat Byzantine Empire taking Constantinople renaming it Istanbul = end of Byzantine Empire, remains capital of Turkey until 1923 when moves to Ankara.
After 1500 Moguls (1526-1857) & Safavids (1520-1736) follow military example set by Ottomans & create two new empires
1453 – Bordeaux falls to French, Hundred Years’ War ends without a treaty 1455-1485 – Wars of the Roses between Lancaster & York in England
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1459 – Serbia falls to Turks, Greece 1459-60, Bosnia 1463, Egypt 1517 – for next 400 years Muslim Turks hold sway over Orthodox Christians in former Byzantine empire in E.
1469 – Sir Thomas Malory writes Le Morte D’Arthur, poetic legends about King Arthur
1469 – Isabella & Ferdinand marry, joint rulers of Christian Spain
1469-1536 – Erasmus Christian humanist opposed Luther in debate over grace & human freedom, assigning greater role in conversion to grace
1469-1538 – Nanak first Sikh guru tried to unite Hindusim & Islam adopting beliefs from both faiths
1473-1481 – Sistine Chapel built under supervision of Giovanni de Dolci
1473-1543 – Nicolas Copernicus Polish scholar first produced workable model of solar system with sun at centre, replacing Ptolemaic model of universe & providing foundation for modern astronomy
1475-1564 – Michelangelo Italian painter & sculptor
1477 – First book printed in England
1478 – Spanish Inquisition established by Ferdinand & Isabella with consent of Pope Sixtus IV. Main goal to punish & persecute all “converted” Jews who still managed to practice their old faith in secret
1480 – Ivan III (“The Great”) ends Mongol rule in Russia 1483 – Inca Empire established in Peru 1483 (Nov. 10) – Martin Lutherborn at Eisleben, Germany 1483 – during Spain’s Torquemada Inquisition, 2,000 heretics executed 1484 – Pope Innocent VIII officially denounces pagan practices 1484-1531 – Ulrich Zwingli Swiss reformer conflict with Luther over Eucharist 1485-1603 – strong Tudor dynasty in England
Hensley Henson The Church of England, 1939, p. 7 – “The key to a right understanding of the modern Church of England lies in a just appreciation of the unique character of the English Reformation.”
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3 Qualities: 1. assertion of national independence – including repudiation of Pope 2. subordination of Church to State 3. determination to secure at all costs historical continuity of Church of England with that of First Apostles
1487 – Henry VII of England removes right of accused heretics to know names of their accusers
1488–1569 – Miles Coverdale, Augustinian friar who left the Order, repudiated Catholicism & became first Protestant Bishop of Exeter
1491-1551 – Martin Bucer sympathized with Zwingli rather than Luther
1492 – Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of Castile, later benefactors of Christopher Columbus, end Muslim rule in Spain, with help of Tourquemada, Grand Inquisitor, also force conversion or expulsion of all Jews in Spain
1491-1556 – Ignatius of Loyola founder of Jesuits, Society of Jesus
1491-1547 – Henry VIII
1492 -Christopher Columbus discovers Americas in name of Spain, ushering in an era of exploration & conquest
1492 – Jews expelled from Spain 1496-1561 – Menno Simons 1497 – Jews expelled from Portugal 1498 – Savonarola, fiery Dominican reformer of Florence in Italy executed 1499 – Francisco Jime’nez forces mass conversion of Muslims
1491-1556 – Ignatius of Loyola, founder of Jesuit order (see 1534) 1494-1536 – William Tyndale 16c. – “third Rome” = Moscow – theory became political reality c. 1500 – mass proliferation of new invention – the mirror
1501 – Church orders books against papal authority burned 76
1502-1520 – Reign of last Aztec ruler, Montezuma
1502 – Persian shah executes Sunnis who refuse to accept Shiite version of Islam
1505 – Luther becomes monk
1505-1572 – John Knox, Protestant reformer in Scotland (see 1560)
1506 – Pope Julius II orders old St Peter’s Basilica torn down & authorizes Donato Bramante to plan new structure, demolition completed 1606
1506 – Approximately 3,000 converted Jews slaughtered in Lisbon riot 1507 – Martin Luther ordained & celebrates first Mass 1508-1512 – Michelangelo frescoes Sistine Chapel’s vaulted ceiling. 1509 – Pope Julius II excommunicates city of Venice
1509 (June 24) – Henry VIII crowned king of England (to 1547) 1509–1564 – John Calvin preached predestination, good conduct & success signs of
election, most influential of second generation of reformers
1510 – first African slaves taken to Americas
1511 – Henry VIII begins proceedings to dissolve marriage to Catherine (commonly done for right price). In this case political considerations came into play. Catherine was aunt of Charles V, King of Spain & Emperor of Holy Roman Empire, ruler of Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, & Sardinia therefore in temporal control of Rome. Henry waited 7 years before trying again.
1512 – Michelangelo completes ceiling of Sistine Chapel in Rome
1513-1572 – John Knox Scottish Reformer, disciple of Calvin
1514 – Thomas Wolsey (1474–1530) made Archbishop of York, in 1515 made a Cardinal & month later Lord Chancellor of England – concentration of power effectively uniting Church & State. However, when he failed to obtain Papal dispensation for Henry’s annulment from Catherine he incurred wrath of Anne Boleyn & through her the King’s displeasure. Paved way for Henry to think of the possibility of uniting Church & State under the crown.
1514 – Albrecht becomes archbishop of Mainz & sells indulgences in return for contributions to building St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome
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1515 (March 28) – Teresa Snachez de Cepdea y Ahumada (St. Teresa of Avila) born Spanish Carmelite nun formed Discalced (barefoot) Carmelites with St. John of the Cross – stages of mystical journey
1516 – Ottomans conquer Syria
1516 – Sir Thomas More’s Utopia
1516 – Erasmus, northern humanist produces improvised Greek edition of New Testament
1516 – Johann Tetzel (c.1465-1519) German Dominican friar & preacher of indulgences supported public opinion that mere payment of money could be applied with unfailing effect to deliver soul from purgatory
1517 (Oct 31) – Luther posts 95 Theses on indulgences to church door in Wittenberg, protesting sale of indulgences & other corrupt church practices. Beginning of Protestant Reformation
Reformation many divisive forces at work in 16c. Europe – translation of Bible into vernacular, invention printing press, new learning Renaissance – questioning mindless authority, emergence of new sciences
4 questions Protestantism answered differently from Catholicism: 1. How person saved? not by works but by faith alo ne 2. Where does religious authority lie? not in visible institution called
Roman Church, but in Word of God found in the Bible 3. What is the Church? not institution dominated by Roman hierarchy, but
whole community of Christian believers 4. What is essence of Christian living? serving God in any useful calling
ordained or lay
1518 – At meeting of Augustinians in Heidelberg, Martin Luther defends his theology. In October, Luther appears before Cardinal Cajetan at Augsburg, but refuses to recant. In December, his prince, Frederick the Wise, refuses to hand him over to Rome.
1518 – Swiss Reformation begins independently under Huldreich Zwingli (1481-1531)
1519 – Martin Luther claims to understand the “righteousness of God” as “passive righteousness with which God justifies us by faith” [some scholars date this discovery earlier] In July debates Catholic Professor John Eck at Leipzig & denies supreme authority of popes & councils
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1519-1521 – Hernando Cortes, Spanish conquistador, conquers Mexico with force of about 500 soldiers using mixture of guile & force against Aztec & Mayan natives
1520 (Oct. 10) – Papal bull Exsurge Domine condemns 41 of Luther’s beliefs, gives Luther 60 days to recant or be excommunicated
Luther writes 3 seminal treatises, To the Christian Nobility, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and The Freedom of a Christian.
Luther burns papal bull excommunicating him as well as books of canon law
1520 – Unsuccessful rebellion of Aztecs against Spanish conquerors. Cortes destroys Tenochtitlan & builds Mexico City in its place
1520 – Anabaptist movement develops in Switzerland & Germany, harshly persecuted by both Catholics & Protestants. Anabaptists deny any efficacy in infant baptism & renounce use of violence
1521 – Martin Luther condemned as heretic & outlaw at Diet of Worms in April. On trial before Emperor Charles V & other leaders of church & state, refuses to recant his writings. After Diet of Worms, he is “kidnapped” by Frederick the Wise & hidden at Wartburg Castle. There begins translating Erasmus’ Greek New Testament into vernacular German
1522 – March Luther comes out of hiding & returns to Wittenberg, helping to reestablish order
1522 – Zwingli condemns priestly celibacy, leads Swiss reformation from pastorate in Zurich
1522 – Martin Luther finishes New Testament translation, first published in September 1522 – Ignatius of Loyola writes Spiritual Exercises 1523 – Zurich city government led by Ulrich Zwingli, “puritanical city” 1524 – Luther still wearing monk’s habit
1524 – South German peasant uprising, inspired by Luther’s reform work but repressed with Luther’s support, begins 150 years of religious wars
1525 – Luther marries former nun Katharina von Bora
1525 (Jan. 25) – Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock in Zurich – birth of Anabaptism
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1525-1534 William Tyndale’s translation of the NT from Greek text of Erasmus (1466). Used as vehicle by Tyndale for bitter attacks on Church, reflects influence of Luther’s NT of 1522 in rejecting “priest” for “elder,” “church” for “congregation.” Tyndale soundly rebuked by Chancellor of Gloucester – “I would sooner the Pope’s Word than God’s.”
Tyndale – “If God spare my life, ere many years pass, I will cause a boy that driveth the plough shall know more of the scriptures than thou dost.”
up to 80% Tyndale’s wording passed into KJV NT
1527 – Henry VIII in conflict with pope Clement VII over annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon (papacy dominated by Charles of Spain – Catherine’s nephew) in order to marry Anne Boleyn
1527 (Jan. 25) – Felix Many first Anabaptist martyr downed at Zurich
Anabaptist principles: – discipleship – Christian’s relationship with Jesus goes beyond inner
experience & doctrine to involve daily walk with God in which Christ’s teaching & example transform life
- love – pacifism & community – “congregational” view of church authority – separation of church & state = almost unheard of idea
1529 – Luther publishes Large Catechism & Small Catechism 1529 – term “Protestant” originates at Diet of Speyer when supporters of Luther formally
protest imperial efforts to limit spread of Lutheranism 1529 – Royal decree in Denmark makes Lutheranism sole religion 1529 – Japanese Tendai monks massacre Nicheren Buddhists in Kyoto
1529 – Thomas Cranmer suggests to Henry consult Universities of Europe for judgment on legal status of marriage to Catherine. Henry so liked the idea employed Cranmer at Royal Court
1530 – Luther, as an outlaw, cannot attend Diet of Augsburg, held in attempt to end religious division in Holy Roman Empire. Philipp Melanchthon, Luther’s co- worker, presents Augsburg Confession, statement of Lutheran beliefs & thus founds Lutheran church. Luther & Zwingli (Swiss Protestant leader) agree on 14 of 15 articles of faith, but disagree on significance of Lord’s Supper
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1531 – St. Teresa (age 16) sent as boarder to Convent of Our Lady of Grace run by Augustinian nuns
1531 – Zwingli killed in Swiss civil war
1531 – Reported apparition of Mary at Guadalupe, Mexico considered “worthy of belief” by Catholic Church
1531 – Earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal kills 30,000
1531 – Comet, eventually named “Haley’s” creates wave of superstition
1531 – Lutheran states form Schmalkaldic League as alliance against Holy Roman Empire
1531 – Inquisition begins in Portugal
1532 – Thomas Cranmer travelling in Europe meets & secretly marries Margaret Osiander, niece of Andreas Osiander, Lutheran Reformer. Upon return to England, Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury
1533 – Francisco Pizarro captures Inca capital Cuzco & conquers Peru, orders execution by strangulation of last Inca
1533 (Jan) – Henry VIII secretly marries Anne Boleyn 1533 (May 23) – Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine declared invalid by Cranmer. Henry
denies Pope’s authority over England so can marry Anne Boleyn 1533 (July 11) – Henry excommunicated by Pope Clement VII 1533-1584 – Ivan “the Terrible” Czar of Russia
1534 – Henry passes Act of Supremacy confirming King & successors with title “the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England called Anglicana Ecclesia” & “the Bishop of Rome hath not by scripture any greater authority in England than any other foreign bishop.” Only in sense beginning of the Church of England. Henry’s intention was simply to take to himself & Archbishop of Canterbury papal Powers. King was named “Defender of the Faith.” Law passed forbidding any further payments to pope, but this law is “not to be interpreted as intending to decline or vary from the congregation of Christ’s Church in anything concerning the very articles of the Catholic faith.”
Not religious but political Reformation – nothing changed doctrinally. After connection from Rome severed Church of England continued religious customs &
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practices as before. Sacraments not altered; services in Latin; priests remained celibate.
1534 – Luther publishes complete German Bible
1534 – Jesuit order founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), Spain, helped reconvert large areas of Poland, Hungary, & S. Germany, sent missionaries to New World, India, & China, led Roman Counter-Reformation
1534 – Jacques Cartier explores Canada
1534-1540 – Pope Paul III
1535-1537 – Coverdale’s Bible (see 1488), used Tyndale’s (1525) translation along with Latin & German versions, includes Apocrypha at the end of the OT (like Luther) as in later English versions. 1537 edition receives royal license, but is banned in 1546
1536 – St. Teresa leaves home, against father’s will, to join Carmelite Convent of the Incarnation
1536 – Luther agrees to Wittenberg Concord on Lord’s Supper in attempt to resolve differences with other reformers, but Zwinglians do not accept it
1536 – John Calvin publishes first edition of his Institutes of the Christian Religion, destined to become one of most influential works of Protestantism. Details theology of humanity’s depravity, necessity of grace for salvation & predestination. Starts theocracy in Geneva but is criticized for forming a “New Papacy” & driven out
1536 – William Tyndale strangled & burnt at stake in Brussels, where he had gone into exile in order to continue translating Scriptures into English
One year later Henry VIII authorized the “Great Bible,” be bought & read throughout realm = Coverdale’s Bible (Miles Coverdale, an Augustinian friar who left the Order, repudiated Catholicism & became first Protestant Bishop of Exeter), used Tyndale’s (1525) translation along with Latin & German versions, included Apocrypha at end of OT (like Luther) as was done in later English versions. 1537 edition received royal license, but banned in 1546. While defective in many places, was corrected by a Latin version of the Hebrew OT, the Latin Bible of Erasmus, & the Complutensian Polyglot. Last edition appeared 1569, never denounced by Church of England
1536 – Anne Boleyn executed. Henry VIII marries Jane Seymor 1536 – Ibrahim, friend of Sulliman murdered
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1537 (Nov. 3) – St. Teresa’s final profession
1537-1551 – Circulation of Matthew Bible by John Rogers (1500-1555). This translation based on Tyndale & Coverdale received royal license, but was not authorized for use in public worship. There were numerous editions.
1538 – Luther writes Against the Jews 1538 – Teresa suffers complete physical break down for three years during which she is
at one point presumed dead
1539 – The Six Articles of Church of England instituted by Henry VIII to prevent spread of Reformation doctrines & practices: 1. maintained transubstantiation, 2. communion in one kind, 3. enforced clerical celibacy, 4. upheld monastic vows, 5. defended private Masses, 6. obligatory sacramental confession. Requirements largely ignored by those holding high ecclesiastical office
1540’s – Portuguese missionaries arrive in India
1540 – Society of Jesus founded by Ignatius of Loyola approved by Vatican & placed services entirely at disposal of pope
1541–1564 – Calvin, invited back by Synod of Geneva to head theocratic Protestant government in Geneva, Switzerland, known as Europe’s only “Free City”
1542-1591 – John of the Cross stressed union with God attainable only in denial of self
1542 – Portugese merchants first arrive in Japan
1542 – Pope Paul II establishes Universal Inquisition in Rome. Dominican cardinals try alleged heretics with no legal counsel
1543 – Spanish Catholics begin burning Protestants at the stake
1543 – Nikolaus Copernicus writes De Revolutionibus Orbitum Coelestium “On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres” asserting that Earth & planets revolve around sun. Catholic Church has accorded an official holy status to Ptolemy’s geocentric Universe. Copernicus avoids prosecution as heretic by waiting until end of his life to publish controversial claims
1544 – Sweden makes Lutheranism official state religion & bans Catholic worship
1544 -1547 – Schmalkaldic League defeated in war with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1500-1558)
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1545 – Luther writes “Against the Papacy at Rome. Founded by the Devil”
1545-1563 – Council of Trent marks beginning of Catholic Reformation, or counter-reformation. Sought to meet challenge of Protestantism & clearly define official theology. Accorded full canonical status to deuterocanonical Hebrew writings (the Apocrypha – Grk “those having been hidden away”) of questionable authorship or authenticity because had not been accepted by Jewish elders into Hebrew canon, & never quoted in NT
1546 (Feb. 18) – Luther dies in Eisleben
1546 – King Henry VIII forbids anyone to have copy of Tyndale’s or Coverdale’s NT
1546 (Aug 3) – Etienne Dolet hanged & burnt at the stake as a heretic & blasphemer for printing works of humanists, including Erasmus
1547 – Henry VIII dies – Roman mass still in use, no indigenous English prayer book, system of church government unchanged from Rome – only change supremacy of pope has been repudiated
1547 – Ivan III the Terrible (1533-1584) crowned Tsar
1547 – Edward VI, (age 9) becomes King of England. Country governed by Regency Council which inaugurated time of radical Protestantizing. Thomas Cranmer becomes one of Edward’s most influential advisers
1548-1600 – Giordano Bruno Hermetic philosopher one of most important philosophers of Renaissance, advocated kind of nature mysticism with strong scientific component.
Heremeticism– followers of legendary figure Hermes Trismegistus (thrice-great Hermes), reputed to be an Egyptian writer. Much nature writing of Renaissance found hermetic thought useful because both understood world to be intrinsically interconnected & only understandable once those connections are understood
1549 – Book of Common Prayer in England by Cranmer, establishes liturgy & practice for Church of England. Made up of English translation of Latin Beviary (prayers, hymns, psalms, readings); Missal (rights & ceremonies of mass) & Pontifical (Episcopal sacraments & rites) Some revision from originals but no difference in essential matters. Did permit clergy to marry, restored Chalice to people, made confession voluntary not obligatory. BCP imposed on England by “Act of Uniformity”
1549 – St. Francis Xavier arrives in Japan & introduces Christianity
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1551 – Robert Estienne, French printer in Geneva divides Stephen Langton’s Bible chapters into verses
1552 – Cranmer’s 2nd BCP revision making it more Protestant & adding 42 “Articles of Religion” formed basis of later Thirty-Nine articles, but never enforced because of restoration of RC faith under Queen Mary
1553–1558 – Catholic Queen Mary (1516-1558) reigns in England, persecuting Protestants & restoring Catholicism as official religion. Known as “Bloody Mary” so violent succeeded in instilling hatred in English people against herself & Papacy. Imprisoned Cranmer & had him tried for heresy. He made several recantations affirming belief in transubstantiation & Papal supremacy in attempt to be obedient to his Queen whom he believed reigned by divine right, later renounced his recantations. Cranmer died at the stake March 21, 1556 showing great courage. Mary put a hold on radical Protestantizing tendencies under Edward but also forever makes it impossible for papalism to recapture hearts of the people of England
1553 – Pontifical Gregorian University founded at Vatican City
1554-1600 – Richard Hooker gives intellectual shape to Anglican Church, opposed Puritan idea that whatever was not expressly commanded in Scripture must not be allowed. Church = organic institution, therefore method of Church Government & ecclesiastical administration will cha nge according to circumstances. Exalted reason, tolerance & inclusiveness
1555 – Peace of Augsburg reduces religious hostilities in Holy Roman Empire by allowing princes to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their subjects
1555 – Pope Paul IV orders wall built to create first Jewish ghetto
1555-1626 – Lancelot Andrewes
1558 – Elizabeth I Tudor (1533-1603) Anne Boleyn’s daughter, succeeds Mary as Queen of England, restores Protestantism as official religion. Puritan movement develops among those dissatisfied with her reforms. Left to Elizabeth to settle between Puritanism of Edward & papalism of Mary, desires to be inclusive/balanced. When she came to the throne she was declared illegitimate by Rome, country as a whole still predominantly Catholic. Elizabeth had no strong convictions (?) of her own but was prejudiced against Catholicism for having declared her illegitimate. Also, however, personally disliked Puritans.
Three groups Christians in Church of England: 1. ROMANISTS – there from beginning wanted to be subject to Rome
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2. PURITANS – felt Elizabeth had not gone far enough in Protestant direction, took name from desire to purify Church of England of any traces of origins in Roman Catholic Church. Wanted to start new English Church based entirely on Reformation principles
3. CHURCHMEN – preserve doctrine & sacraments known from beginning but keep English Church free from Roman domination = Anglicans
1558 – John Knox publishes First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women deploring authority of women, & returns to Scotland to lead reformation there after exile in Calvin’s Geneva
1559 – Elizabeth I’s Act of Uniformity BCP imposed on England, absence from church made punishable by fine of twelve pence
1559 – Elizabeth’s first Parliament approved new Act of Supremacy, reviving father’s legislation against Rome & imposing oath on all clergy & secular officials to acknowledge queen as Supreme Governor of both Church & State, assertion of monarch’s responsibility before God for welfare of Church of England
1559–1633 – George Herbert, poet & parish priest
1560 – Publishing of Geneva Bible. NT revision of Matthew’s version of Tyndale with use of Beza’s NT (1556); OT thorough revision of Great Bible, appointed to be read in Scotland (but not England), at least 140 editions
1560 – Scotch Presbyterian Church founded by John Knox (1505-1572), disciple of Calvin, due to disagreement with Lutherans over sacraments & church government
1561 – Sulliman Ottoman Sultan d. 1561–1626 – Francis Bacon
1562 (July) – St Teresa returns to Avila, receives permission to found St. Joseph’s convent of Discalced (barefoot) Carmelites, opened August 24
1562 – War of Religion begins in France between Catholics & French Protestants (Huguenots)
1562 – John of the Cross ordained
1563 – Thirty-nine Articles motivated by political concerns, Elizabeth passed Thirty- nine Articles, though more Protestant than she would have liked = only attempt at
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doctrinal statement by Church of England other than Creeds. Shaped by controversies of 16c. Main controversy over understanding of Eucharist in 1552 BCP – “Black Rubric” denied “Real Presence” of Christ in Eucharist
JWC Wand – since, however, Church of England “claimed to represent a continuity of the age-long historic church, it did not find it necessary, as some churches on the continent did, to formulate its whole scheme of Christianity afresh from the beginning. All it needed to do was to make clear its attitude towards Rome & towards the more important changes induced by the revolt against her.”
1564 – To commute his death sentence from Inquisition for dissecting human bodies, Andreas Vesalius makes pilgrimage to Holy Land
1564-1642 – Galileo Italian scientist, forced by Rome to renounce belief in Copernicus vision of universe & to assert earth stands still with sun revolving around it
1564-1616 – William Shakespeare
1565 – St.Teresa The Life of Saint Teresa & begins The Way of Perfection
1566 – Suleiman I, 10th Ruler of Ottoman Empire d.
1567 – Teresa meets John of the Cross
1567-1622 – St. Francis de Sales French mystic
1568 – Protestant Netherlands rebel against Catholic Spanish rule, but Dutch independence not finally recognized by Spain until 1648
1568 (Nov.) – Teresa & John of the Cross found first reformed Discalced Carmelite friary for men
1570 (April 27) – Pope Pius V issues Bull of Excommunication declaring Elizabeth deprived of her right to throne & releasing all subjects from allegiance to her. Orders Romans to withdraw from church of England and worship by themselves. Marks final separation of English & Roman churches. Didn’t work.
1572 – Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day under Catherine de Medicis in France: 2,000 French Calvinists (Hugenots) murdered by Catholics
1573-1645 – William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury
1574 – Everard Mercurian French General of Jesuits forbade practice of affective prayer & application of five senses, thus limiting prayer to discursive meditation
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1575-1624 – Jacob Boehme concerned with nature of sin, evil & redemption. Consistent with Lutheran theology, preached that humanity had fallen from state of divine grace to state of sin & suffering, that forces of evil included fallen angels who had rebelled against God, & God’s goal was to restore world to a state of grace
1577 – Orthodox creeds of Lutheranism established as Lutheran churches accept Book of Concord
1577 – Francis Drake sails around world (until 1580)
1582 – Douay Version of New Testament (English translation) completed. After OT translation completed in 1610, becomes first English translation authorized by & for Roman Catholics
1582 – Gregorian calendar introduced into Roman Catholic countries
1584 – Reginald Scot attacks superstition in The Discoverie of Witchcraft.
1586 – Colony of Roanoke established in Virginia, later disappears under unknown circumstances
1587 – Mary Queen of Scots, with whom Romanists along with Pope Pius V, had tried to replace Elizabeth, executed for plotting to assassinate Elizabeth. Brings on Spanish attack
1587 – Christians persecuted in Japan for first time. Hideyoshi bans Christianity from Japan when he is refused sex for religious reasons
1588 – Spanish Armada defeated by English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake & Sir John Hawkins. Removed Spanish threat from England, kindled new nationalism which went on to make England foremost Protestant power in Europe & led to increasing persecution of Roman Catholics.
1589 – Muscovite bishop Job recognized as first Patriarch of All Russia
1590 – Michelangelo’s dome in St. Peter’s Basilica completed
1591 – d. John of the Cross
1593 – Russian Church received approval of status as patriarchate from bishops of Jerusalem, Alexandria & Antioch
1593 – Diet of Uppsala in Sweden upholds Martin Luther’s doctrines
1596-1650 – Rene Descartes French philosopher & scientist “father of moderntheology” “Cogito, Ergo sum” = end result of search for something that can not be doubted,
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relied on reason to explain working of universe, forefather of Enlightenment (18c.) fulfilled way prepared by St. Thomas Aquinas in radical dualism between soul & body, mind & matter in which body & all physical world regarded as totally deprived of all spiritual or non-material qualities & powers
1596 – Ukranian Catholic Church forms when Ukranian subjects of king of Poland reunited with Rome; largest Byzantine Catholic Church
1598 – French king Henry IV (1553-1610) issues Edict of Nantes, ending bloody Wars of Religion & granting religious freedom to Protestants/Hugenots
1600 – Giordano Bruno burned at the stake for supporting Copernican astronomy
Quietism– spirituality of 17th c. minimized human activity. Human responsibility is to be perfect by attaining complete passivity & annihilating will abandoning oneself to God – state reached through mental prayer which refuses all discursive meditation & simply rests in presence of God in pure faith – gave contemplative prayer bad name from 17th to 20th cent.
Deism – God = first in series of factors bringing about universe, watchmaker, ‘Supreme Being’ after creation no longer involved in world, rejects supernatural aspects of religion such as belief in revelation in Bible. Stresses importance of ethical conduct
ENLIGHTENMENT 17 & 18c. – celebration of power of human reason, religious tolerance, desire for freedom from tyranny, truth obtained only through reason, observation & experiment, scientific mind
1600 – Shakespeare writes Hamlet
1603–1625 – James I,(Stuart) only son of Mary, Queen of Scots. King of Scotland since 1567 succeeded Elizabeth I to English throne by right of his mother’s descent from Henry VIII – first to call himself King of Great Britain
1604 – King James (1566-1625) of England commissions “King James” translation of Bible, bans Jesuits
1606 – Champlain establishes Port Royal, Nova Scotia
1607 -English settlers establish Jamestown, Virginia first colony in America
1608 – John Smyth (c.1570-1612) establishes Baptist Church due to objections to infant baptism & demands for church-state separation
1608 – Confucianism becomes official religion of Japan 89
1608 – French colony of Quebec founded
1608-1609 – John Smith, Anglican preacher becomes Nonconformist minister, called “the Se-baptist” (self-baptizer), generally considered founder of organized Baptists of England
1608-1674 – John Milton
1609 – Christianized Muslims, called Moriscos, expelled from Spain, depriving Spain of much of its learned class
1610 – Tea introduced to Europe
1611 – King James Authorized Bible issued after 4 years of work by 54 scholars, commissioned by King James I of England (reigned 1603-1625). Since KJV trans. more ancient & accurate mss have been discovered (eg. Codex Sinaiticus c.325 & Dead Sea Scrolls found at Qumran in 1947 & Nag Hammadi Library in Upper Egypt 1945) giving much better understanding world Jesus lived in & of early Christianity
1612 – Christian missionaries evicted from Japan 1613 – Galileo tries to show Copernican theory can exist alongside Church doctrine 1614 – Dutch found colony of New Amsterdam in area of modern-day New York City 1616 – Church prohibits Galileo from further scientific work
1618 – Protestant uprising in Bohemia begins Thirty Years’ War. Involved: France, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Austria, & numerous states of Germany rooted in national rivalries & conflict between Roman Catholics & Protestants
1619 (Feb 9) – Humanist Lucilio Vanini is tortured & burnt at the stake for atheism
1620 – population of Quebec = 60 persons
1620 – English Puritans, known as Pilgrims, establish colony in America at Plymouth Rock to escape religious pluralism in England
1621- Church bans Johann Kepler’s, The Epitome of the Copernican Astronomer
1622-1625 – Execution of Christian missionaries to Japan reaches high point
1623-1662 – Blaise Pascal, French mathematician, scientist, religious thinker – reason alone cannot satisfy people’s hopes & aspirations, religious faith therefore
90necessary. It is prudent to believe in God’s existence, nothing lost if wrong, eternal happiness if right = “Pascal’s wager”
1624-1691 – George Fox founder Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) 1624 – Cardinal Richelieu becomes chief minister in France, continues until 1642,
instrumental in raising France to great international power
1625–1649 – Charles I (Stuart) King of Great Britain & Ireland
1628 – Jan Amos Comenius, driven from homeland in Moravia, wanders rest of life preaching educational reform & pleading for Christian reconciliation
1632 – Galileo publishes scientific masterpiece showing how Copernican system superior to Ptolemaic, called to Rome
1632-1677 – Benedict Spinoza Dutch philosopher argued for form of pantheism & set out arguments like proofs in Geometry
1632–1704 – John Locke English philosopher, ardent defender of free inquiry, basis for reason is human experience, argued against belief human beings born with certain ideas already in their minds, rather mind = “tabula rasa”
1633 (June 21) – Galileo found guilty of disobeying Church order, forced by Inquisition to renounce theories of Copernicus, forced to publicly recant, sentenced to life imprisonment. Descartes stops publishing in France in response to the Church’s attacks on Galileo
1633 – William Laud High Churchman appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by Charles I, followed vigorous policy enforcing fixed standard of ceremonial & repressing Puritans because refused BCP & wanted altar in nave rather than against east end, they also rejected vestments & used wrong bread at communion. He was unpopular.
1635-1705 – Jakob Spener founder of German Pietism Pietism– seek truth not in church or creed but in heart, importance of personal
faith 1636 – Harvard founded, first university in America 1637 – Japanese outlaw Christianity, foreign books, & contact with Europeans 1638 – Christian rebellion suppressed in Shimabara, Japan 1641- Catholics massacre Protestants in Ulster
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1642 – City of Montreal founded in Canada by French settlers
1642–1649 – English Civil War(result of Puritan Parliament’s refusal to grant Charles any funds) – between Royalists (Anglicans & Catholics) & Cavaliers (“Roundheads,” Puritans & Presbyterians). Defeat of Royalists meant disestablishment of Church of England & constitution of England as a Republic called the Commonwealth of England
1642 – 1727 – Isaac Newton, English physicist discovered principle of gravity
1643-1727 – Louis XIV of France, the “Sun King,” palace at Versailles
1644 – Long Parliament directed only Hebrew canon of OT be read in Church of England (effectively removed Apocrypha)
1645 (Jan. 10) – William Laud executed by Puritans 1646 – Presbyterianism established as national religion in England by Long Parliament.
Lasts through English Civil War & afterward during interregnum
1646 – The Westminster Confession drafted in Jerusalem Room at Westminster Abbey
1647 – George Fox (1624-1691) founds Society of Friends (Quakers) repudiates use of violence & oathswearing. Quakers also worship without ministers or liturgy, teaching existence of “inner light” of divine revelation
1648 -Thirty Years’ Warends with Peace of Westphalia, Germany divided between Catholic & Protestant states, end of forced religious conformity in Europe – France emerges as Europe’s dominant power
1649 (Jan. 30) – Charles I executed by Puritans 1648-1789 – THE AGE OF REASON AND REVIVAL
(birth of secularism – follow procedure of science – observation, deduction, reason)
1650 – Archbishop James Ussher of Ireland cites Bible to calculate life emerged on Sunday, October 23, 4004 BCE
1652 – City of Capetown founded in South Africa by Dutch settlers
1653 (July 4) – Oliver Cromwell speech at opening of assembly thanks God’s providence believed had brought England to this point & sets out their divine mission: “truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time”. Sometimes
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known as Parliament of Saints, also called Barebone’s Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barebone, charged with finding permanent constitutional & religious settlement (Cromwell invited to be member but declined) failure to do so led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653 & appointment of Cromwell as Lord Protector of England until death
Puritans banned Christmas, closed theatres, fired clergy, discarded BCP, changed church architecture & structure of Church of England along Presbyterian lines, threw out crosses, denigrated anything associated with Rome
1653 – Taj Mahal mausoleum built in India
1656 – St. Peter’s Rome completed
1658 (Sept. 3) – Cromwell dies, succeeded by son, Richard, overthrown 1660 by George Monk. New parliament elected, monarchy restored under Charles II = “Restoration” return to traditional government, established church, reversion from austerity to luxury, revival of arts, renewal of external authority in religion & theory of arts
1660 – The Amsterdam Synagogue officially petitions municipal authorities to denounce Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza as a “menace to all piety & morals”
1660-1685 – Charles II (Stuart) regains throne of England restores Anglicanism as national religion
1662 – Book of Common Prayerestablished as only legal form of worship in England by Act of Uniformity
1662 – Puritans withdraw from Church of England to start own Presbyterian Church
1662 – Abbot Armand-Jean de Rance introduces reforms to Cistercian order at La Trappe, France creating The Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance (The Trappists)
1662 – Rembrandt completes painting of Prodigal Son 1664 – British forces capture New Amsterdam from Dutch & rename it New York City 1664 – First women condemned as witches in New World 1665 – John Milton, Paradise Lost 1666 – Great Fire of London
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1670 – German pastor Philipp Jacob Spener (1635 -1714) leads German Pietist movement, emphasizes pious living & personal experiences of faith
1673 – Roman Catholics & nonconformists in England deprived of public office by Test Act.
1675 – Sir Christopher Wren begins new St. Paul’s Cathedral
1675 – Philipp Jacob Spener, German Lutheran minister publishes Pia Desideria which becomes manifesto for ‘Pietism’
1675-1751 – Jean Pierre De Caussade French Catholic Jesuit 1678 – John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress 1685-1759 – George Frederick Handel
1685 – James II (Stuart) ascends throne of England openly professing Roman Catholic allegiance. Wants to restore Catholicism & absolute monarchy against peoples’ wishes. People put hopes in his daughter Mary a Protestant. When James II has son who is baptized in RC Church, the nation anticipates permanent entrenchment of Catholicism
1685-1750 – J.S. Bach
1685 – French king Louis XIV (1683-1714) renounces Edict of Nantes & denies religious freedom to French Protestants, resulting in mass exodus of Huguenots from France
1687 (Nov. 19) – Quietismcondemned by Innocent XI in bull “Coelestio Pastor”
1686-1761 – William Law
1688 – at invitation of English Parliament William of Orange (Mary’s husband) invades England forcing James to flee to France giving up throne to William & Mary II (no bloodshed = “Glorious Revolution”) Had to agree to Bill of Rights severely limiting power of King or Queen
1688-1722 – Emanuel Swedenborg detailed understanding of nature mysticism applying it to everything from animal to spiritual world
1689 – Dissenters from Church of England granted rights by Act of Toleration. Catholics excluded from the English throne
1689-1752 – Czar Peter the Great starts to modernize Russia
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1692 – Salem witch panic & trials occur
1692-1752 – Bishop Joseph Butlerrefuted deism
1694–1778 – Voltaire antagonist of Catholic Church, French philosopher known as free thinker
1698 – founding of SPCK
1699 – “planters of St. John’s Harbor,” Newfoundland petition Bishop of London for “a sober clergyman whose first task will be the rebuilding of the church which was here previously, but which was destroyed by the French”
1699 – Francois Fenelon censured due to influence of Jacques Benigne Bossuet, bishop of Meaux (d. 1704) who viewed mysticism as “essentially a lamentable extravagance, a kind of spiritual failing tempting the odder saints” & opposed quietism
18c. – in 73 years patriarchal throne of Constantinople changed occupant 48 times c.1700 – British East India Company formed 1701 – founding of SPG 1702-1714 – Anne Queen of England (Stuart)
1702 – Tories (High Church) in power 1703-1758 – Jonathan Edwards Congregational preacher & revivalist in America 1703-1791 – John Wesley founder of Methodist movement
1704 – John Locke d. any opposition to reason should be called madness – “Tabula Rasa – Locke’s belief at birth human mind = blank slate which gets filled with what perceive through five senses, from which reason forms abstract concepts
1706 – Irish churchman Francis Makemie (c.1658-1708) establishes Presbyterian church in America
1707 – union of England & Scotland
1709 – British invasion of Canada
1711 – Anthony Cooper 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury publishes principle writings, protests against pessimism re: human nature, human beings by nature benevolent, when good simply following their nature
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1711-1776 – David Hume, Scottish philosopher, known for scepticism, all knowledge based either on impressions of senses or logical relations of ideas
1712 – Jansenism branch of Catholic thought that emphasized original sin, human depravity, necessity of divine grace, & predestination – human beings born sinful, without divine help human being could never become good. Led Jansenists to seek to exhibit high level of piety & moral rectitude, & to prepare carefully through prayer & confession before receiving Communion so favored less frequent reception. Idea of predestination, based on Augustine’s writing, close to Calvinism, only portion of human beings, the “elect”, destined to be saved. Unlike Calvinism Jansenism lacked doctrine of assurance, making salvation unknowable even to the “saved.”
1712-1778 – Rousseau, French philosopher, leading figure of Enlightenment. In natural state people are good but are corrupted by social institutions, became central idea of Romanticism
1714 – Whigs in power until 1760 supported aristocratic families & non-Anglicans (dissenters), while Tories supported Anglicans & monarchy & were hostile to reform
1714-1727 – George I King of England (Hanover) 1716 – Christian religious teaching prohibited in China 1719 – Jesuits expelled from Russia 1720 – collapse of Mughal empire in India, British begin to take power
1720–1760 – American colonies experience Great Awakening, widespread conversions emphasizing personal piety & individual interpretations of Bible, associated with Jonathan Edwards & George Whitefield, paralleling Continental Pietism & English Evangelicalism
1721-1742 – Walpole PM of England
1723 – England allows Jews to take oaths without words, “On the true faith of a Christian”
1724-1804 – Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, cannot know a thing in itself, but only as our mind constitutes it
1726 – John of the Cross canonized reawakening Church’s long dormant interest in school of Carmel
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1727 – Awakening at Herrnhut launches Moravian Brethren as forerunner of modern Protestant missionary movements
1727-1760 – King George II King of England (Hanover) 1728 – A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life William Law (1686-1761) 1731 – Expulsion of Protestants from Salzburg 1732-1799 – General George Washington First President of USA 1735 – George Whitefield’s conversion 1736-1819 – James Watt develops efficient steam engine
1738 (May 24) – John Wesley Aldersgate experience – insists religious revelation matter of personal experience rather than dogma & theory, direct simplicity & appeal to personal feelings helps bring Romantic Movement
1743 – Pogroms, anti-Jewish riots begin in Russia 1743-1803 – Louis Claude de Saint Martin tradition of Boehme & other nature mystics 1749 – Halifax founded 1750 – Industrial development starts in England based on coal 1752 – Benjamin Franklin invents lightning rod 1756-1763 – Seven Years’ War William Pitt PM of England 1756-1791 – W.A. Mozart 1757 (Nov. 28) – William Blake b. 1759 – English defeat French at Quebec 1759-1833 – William Wilberforce 1760-1820 – George III King of England (Hanover) 1762-1796 – Catherine the Great rules Russia 1767 – Jesuits expelled from Spain, Parma, & Two Sicilies 1768-1780 – three voyages of James Cook
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1768-1834 – Friedrich Schleiermacher German theologian tried to reconcile criticisms of Enlightenment with orthodox Protestantism
1769 – James Watt’s steam patent
1770-1827 – Beethoven
1770-1831 – Georg Whilhelm Friedrich Hegel, German philosopher, what is real is mind or spirit not material things. History shows gradual unfolding of this mind. Marx treated history as a similar unfolding, but maintained matter, rather than mind truly real
1771 – Parliamentary reporting starts in Britain
1775-1783 – American War of Independence, followed by formation of United States,
1776 Declaration of Independence
1775-1817 – Jane Austen
1777 – Christianity introduced into Korea
1779 – William Carey “the father of modern mission” converted
1782 – William Wilberforce becomes member of Parliament (age 23)
1783 – America wins independence from Britain
1784 – John Wesley writes Deed of Declaration, basic work of Methodism & ordains two men from America
1785 – Church of England in Canada established after American Revolution (1775-1783) had flooded Nova Scotia with loyalist refugees
1787 – Charles Inglis consecrated first Canadian Bishop
1789-1914 – THE AGE OF PROGRESS 1789 – Protestant Episcopal Church founded in America as independent branch of
Anglica nism 1789 (July 14) – storming of Bastille, Paris, French Revolution 1790 – Mutiny on the Bounty – British mutineers colonize Pitcairn Island
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1791 – John Wesley d.
1792 – Denmark becomes first European country to ban slave trade
1793 – Mountain Jacob consecrated Bishop of Quebec (only 9 clergy in Canada)
1793 – execution of French king Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, Republic declared
1794 (July) – execution of Robspierre in France, end of The Reign of Terror & of French Revolution
1794 – monks from Valaam monastery in Russian Finland arrive on island of Kodiak in Alaska
1796 – First smallpox vaccination used by Edward Jenner 1797 – Second Awakening begins in US (Charles Finney, Lyman Beecher, Barton Stone) 1798 – Pope Pius VI is prisoner of France 1798 – Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt
1799 – Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) publishes Religion: Speeches to Its Cultural Despisers, initiating Romantic movement emphasized religious emotions over 18th c. rationalism
1799 – foundation of Church Missionary Society 1801 – Concordat by which Napoleon restores Church of Rome to France
Ultramontanism– devotion to Rome Early 19c. – Church Missionary Society sends missionaries to Indians in Western Canada 1801-1877 – Brigham Young, Mormon leader, colonized Utah 1804-1814 – Napoleon Bonaparte Emperor of France 1805 – Christian literature forbidden in China 1806 – Napoleon master of Europe 1807 – Hegel writes Phenomenology of the Spirit 1807 – abolition of slave trade in British colonies
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1808 – French occupy Rome 1809–1882 – Charles Darwin 1810 – Mexico wins independence
1811 – The Campbells begin the Disciples of Christ (:the Church of Christ), an element within what becomes known as the “Restoration Movement” of American Christianity, primarily comprised of Presbyterians in distress over Protestant factionalism & decline of fervour
1812-1814 – British-American war
1813–1855 – Soren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher, forerunner of existentialism
1813–1873 – David Livingstone
1814 – First modern Shinto group, the Kurozumi sect, founded in Japan
1815-1894 – Theophan the Recluse, one of greatest mystics of Eastern Christendom (Russia)
1815 – Battle of Waterloo, defeat of Napoleon, French monarchy restored 1816 – American Bible Society established 1817-1892 – Bahaullah founder of Bahai born in Teheran, Persia (now Iran) 1818–1883 – Karl Marx
1820-1830 – George IV King of England (Hanover) 1820–1895 – Friedrich Engels 1820 – First American missionaries reach Hawaii 1822 – Schleiermacher writes Christian Faith 1822-1889 – Albrecht Ritschl German Protestant theologian 1825 – French law makes sacrilege a capital offense
1827 – Mormon Church founded by Joseph Smith as result of reported visions of Angel Moroni
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1829 – With Catholic Emancipation Act in Britain, Roman Catholics allowed to hold public office
1830 – Joseph Smith produces Book of Mormon 1830-1837 – William IV King of England (Hanover) 1833 – St. Seraphim of Sarov comes out of twenty years of seclusion 1833 – J.N. Darby breaks with national church in England = start of Brethernism 1833 – J.H. Newman first of 90 Tracts for the Times, beginning Oxford Movement 1833 – John Keble’s sermon “National Apostasy” 1833 – Britain abolishes slavery 1834 – Spanish Inquisition finally abolished 1837-1901 – Victoria queen of England (Hanover) 1838 – Abolition of slavery in British Caribbean 1839 – founding of Cambridge Camden Society = second phase of Oxford Movement 1841 – David Livingston to Africa 1841 – Tract 90 on 39 Articles
1844–1900 – Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche , German thinker – “God is dead,” developed idea of “Superman” ideal superior human condition, not bound by conventional notions of right & wrong. may have influenced Nazism
1845 – Newman received into Rome
1846 – Pope Pius IX pope until 1878
1848 – Karl Marx & Friedrich Engles publish Communist Manifesto, predicting eventual collapse of capitalism
1849 – Western most Canadian Diocese of Ruperstland formed
1852-1922 – Life of Charles Taze Russell, founded Jehovah’s Witnesses movement in 1870s
1853 – Commodore Perry arrives in Japan & forces opening of the society 101
1853 – David Livingstone crosses Africa (to 1856)
1854 – Pius IX declares dogma of Immaculate Conception – Mary conceived without original sin
1855 – English nurse Florence Nightingale reforms nursing during Crimean War
1856–1939 – Sigmund Freud
1857 – Queen Victoria chooses Ottawa as capital of Canada
1858 – Reported apparition of Mary in Lourdes, France, considered “worthy of belief” by Catholic Church
1859 – George Hills consecrated at Westminster Abbey first Bishop Diocese of British Columbia
1859 – Darwin’s Origin of the Species 1861 – Abandonment to Divine Providence assembled by French Jesuit Fr. Henri
Ramiere, SJ from letters of Jean-Pierre de Caussade sent to Sisters of Nancy 1861 – American Civil War begins, lasts until 1865 1863 (Jan. 21) – Swami Brahamananda b. at Sclera village near Calcutta 1865 – William Booth founds Salvation Army 1867 – Canadian B.N.A. Act
1867 – First Lambeth Conference result of “The Colenso Affair.”Bishop Colenso appointed Bishop of Natal by letters patent from Crown (1853) liberal views & published writings. Bishop Gray of Cape Town attempts to depose Colenso who appeals to Judicial Committee of Government who in March 1865 rule in Colenso’s favour preserving his episcopacy. Gray excommunicates Colenso. Growing pressure especially from Canadian Bishops to debate Colenso’s “heresies” & clarify legal situation in overseas provinces. 1866 Archbishop Canterbury sends 144 invitations to Lambeth, only 76 actually attend, some can’t afford to others refuse because fear weakening of church-state links if Privy Council’s declaration for Colenso contradicted. Diocese of Natal declared vacant, Colenso remains in office with another Bishop appointed by Gray in Colenso’s place, unresolved until Colenso dies 1883. Gray’s one achievement comes in1874 when Colonial Clergy Act abolishes any canonical oath of obedience even to Archbishop of Canterbury thus achieving independence for all Anglican Provinces
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1867 – Tokugawa Shogunate overthrown & Meiji Restoration begins in Japan
1869-1870 – First Vatican Council, under Pope Pius IX (20th ecumenical) affirms doctrine of Papal Infallibility (i.e., when pope speaks ex cathedra on faith or morals does so with supreme apostolic authority, which no Catholic may question or reject)
1869-1948 – Ghandi 1870 – France becomes republic 1870-1924 – Lenin 1872 – Gurdjieff born between Greece & Caspian Sea in Alexandropol (Gumri) 1873 (Jan. 2) – St. Therese of Lisieux b.
1873 (Dec. 2) – Bishop David Cummins who had been assistant bishop Diocese of Kentucky forms the Reformed Episcopal Church in response to perceived loss of evangelical witness in Episcopal Church
1874 – Bishop George Hills of Diocese of BC charges Edward Cridge, dean of Christ Church Cathedral, Victoria with eighteen violations of Church Discipline Act. Dean loses license to preach & leaves Church of England joining Reformed Episcopal Church
1876 – Queen Victoria becomes Empress of India
1876 – At Battle of Little Big Horn, Sioux Indians led by Chief Sitting Bull kill General George Armstrong Custer & all his men
1878 – word “anti-Semitism” coined by journalist William Marr who, with Lutheran minister Adolf Stocker, founded the first anti-Jewish party in Berlin in the same year
1878 (March 5) – Ouspensky born in Moscow
1879-1953 – Joseph Stalin
1879-1955 – Albert Einstein, German physicist
1880-1950 – Bhagavan (Lord or God) Sri (honorific title) Ramana (contraction of Venkataraman) Maharshi (great seer in Sanskrit)
1881 (March 1) –Tsar Alexander II assassinated 103
1881-1894 – Revised Version of the Bible, called for by Church of England, is created, used Septuagint (B) & (S) as well as Massoretic text for OT & included Apocrypha. More accurate than previous versions, scholarship never disputed
1881-1955 – Pierre Teilhard de Chardin 1882 – Nietzsche declares “God is dead” 1882 (-1952) – Egypt occupied by British
1882 – Mohammed Ahmed of Dongola, Sudan, claims to be Mahdi (“the guided one” – Islamic equivalent to the Messiah) leads bloody rebellion against British- influenced Egyptian rule
1884-1976 – Rudolph Bultmann
1885 – Riel rebellion
1886-1968 – Karl Barth Swiss Reformed theologian
1887 – Alexander Ulianov (brother of Vladimir Ilich [Lenin]) executed for attempting to assassinate Tsar Alexancer III
1888 – 145 Bishops attend Third Lambeth Conference, adopt Lambeth Quadrilateral:
1. Holy Scriptures of Old & New Testaments as the revealed Word of God
2. Nicene Creed as sufficient statement of the Christian Faith
3. two Sacraments: Baptism & the Supper of the Lord, ministered with unfailing use of Christ’s words of institution & of the elements ordained by Him
4. Historic Episcopate, locally adopted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations & peoples called of God into the unity of His Church
1893 – First Canadian General Synod held in Toronto. All existing provinces & Dioceses brought together in unity of the “Church of England in Canada.” Created office of “Primate of All Canada” – Robert Machray. Adopted “The Solemn Declaration” – “We declare this Church to be, & desire that it shall continue, in full communion with the Church of England throughout the world, as an integral portion of the One Body of Christ composed of Churches which, united under the One Divine Head & in the fellowship of the One Holy Catholic & Apostolic Church, hold the One Faith revealed in Holy Writ, & defined in the Creeds as maintained by the undivided primitive Church in the Scriptures of the Old & New Testaments, as containing all things necessary to salvation; teach the
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same Word of God; partake of the same Divinely ordained Sacraments, through the ministry of the same Apostolic Orders; & worship One God & Father through the same Lord Jesus Christ, by the same Holy & Divine Spirit who is given to them that believe to guide them into all truth.”
1895 – “Seekers of Truth” founded, Gurdjieff travels to Europe
1896 – Sri Ramana Maharshi arrives at holy mountain of Arunachala
1896 – Billy Sunday (1863-1955), American Presbyterian evangelist, begins preaching, attracts huge crowds
1897 (March) – Sri Nisargadatta Mahay b. in Bombay
1897 (Sp. 30) – St. Therese of Lisieux d. in Carmel of Lisieux in Normandy
1899-1902 – Boer War leads to British domination of South Africa
1900 – Freud Interpretation of Dreams
1900 – Hawaii becomes US colony
1901-1910 – Edward VII King of England (Saxe-Coburg-Gotha)
1901 – American Standard Version of the Bible, revision of RV published. Includes words/phrases preferred by Americans & follows Greek order of words
1901 – Pentecostal Church formed in Topeka, Kansas in reaction to loss of evangelical fervour among Methodists & other denominations
1903-1914 – Pope Pius X most recent pope to be canonized
1905 (Jan. 9) – massacre of marchers in St. Petersburg (“Bloody Sunday”)
1906 – Azusa Street revival, Los Angeles
1907 – Abraham Joshua Heschel b. Lithuania became American rabbi & influential Jewish theologian
1908 – Henry Ford introduces Model T
1909 – Gurdjieff finishes 21 years of travelling through Asia, Middle East, Africa, & Europe
1909 (Feb 3) – Simone Weil b. Paris (d. Aug. 24, 1943 in England)
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1910-1915 – The Fundamentals, 12-volume collection of essays by 64 British & American scholars & preachers, becomes ideological inspiration & foundation of Fundamentalism
1910-1936 – George V King of England (Windsor)
1911 – Chinese Revolution leads to overthrow of Manchu dynasty & establishment of Republic
1912 – Gurdjieff begins teaching in Russia. Ouspensky publishes Tertium Organum 1913 – Gurdjieff moves to Moscow 1913-1924 – James Moffat Bible writes first one-man translation in almost 400 years
1914-1980 – AGE OF IDEOLOGIES 1914 – Gurdjieff joined by Ouspensky & Thomas de Hartmann 1914 – Panama Canal opens for business
1914 (June 28) – assassination of Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary. France, Britain, Russia (allies) vs. Germany & Austria. April 6, 1917 US Joins allies (WWI ends 1918)
1914 – Assemblies of God founded
1915 (Jan. 31) – Thomas Merton b. in Prades France
1915 – Ghandi joins nationalist movement in India
1916 (Dec. 16) – Rasputin murdered by Prince Felix Isupov
1917 (Feb.) – Gurdjieff begins journeys through war-torn Caucasus
1917 (Nov.) – Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
1917 (Dec. 18) – US Senate passes Eighteenth Amendment in response to the temperance movement outlawing sale & consumption of alcohol
1917 – Reported apparition of Mary in Fatima, Portugal – “miracle of the sun” witnessed by between 70,000 & 100,000 people, considered “worthy of belief” by Catholic Church
1918 – Summer Civil war in Russia 106
1918 (July 16, 17) – murder of Tsar Nicholas II, family & servants 1918 (Aug) – Iron Cross First Class for bravery awarded to regimental runner in German
army, Adolf Hitler
1918 (Aug) – Gurdjieff leaves Russia
1918 (Nov. 11) – Germany signs armistice ending WWI
1919 – in Tiflis Gurdjieff establishes first Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man, Mme Jean de Salzman becomes student
1919 – Karl Barth’s Commentary on Romans published, critiquing modernist theology
1919 – World’s Christian Fundamentals Association founded
1920 (Jan.) – Hitler becomes chief organizer for German Workers Party, changes name to National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis)
1920 (July) – Gurdjieff goes to Constantinople
1920 (Nov) – end Russian Civil War
1921 – Gurdjieff establishes Priure in France (closes 1924)
1922 – Mussolini gains power in Italy
1922 – Ireland becomes independent from Britain
1923 – Martin Buber’s I and Thou published, may address existence as an “I” towards and “It” or an “I” towards a “Thou”
1923 (Nov) – Hitler in prison begins writing Mein Kamphf (My Struggle)
1924 (Dec 20) – Hitler released from prison
1925 (July) – William Jennings Bryan (against evolution) defeats Clarence Darrow in Scopes Trial, Tennessee
1927 – Stalin dictator of Russia (d.1953)
1927 (May 20) – Charles Lindbergh takes off from New York City in The Spirit of St. Louis to attempt first transatlantic flight (3400 miles)
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1929 (Aug) – Nazis gather in Nuremburg for Party Congress, 60,000 Brown Shirts parade past Hitler
1929 (Oct) – Wall Street crash
1929-1939 – The Great Depression
1930 (Oct.) – Rene Daumal (age 22) meets de Salzmans
1931 – Sri Nisargadatta Mahaj meets his guru
1932 (Feb. 29) – Charles & Anne Morrow Lindbergh’s first child kidnapped by Bruno Richard Hauptman, carpenter from the Bronx
1932 – Alexandre de Salzman begins teaching group
1932 – Barth’s Church Dogmatics
1932 (Aug 10) – Hitler comes second in German presidential election
1933 (Jan 30) – Hitler named Chancellor of German Republic
1933-1945 – FD Roosevelt US President
1934 (May) – Alexandre de Salzman dies, Mme de Salzman assumes leadership
1934 (May) – Barmen Declaration, statement of the Confessing Church opposing Nazi- supported “German Christian” movement
1934 (August 2) – Hitler combines in himself office of Chancellor & President of Germany
1935 (Sept 15) – Nuremberg Laws deprive Jews of German citizenship
1935 (Dec. 19) – Charles & Anne Morrow Lindbergh move to England
1936 – Ouspensky expands work in London meets Robert S. de Ropp
1936 – Edward VIII, King of England (Windsor), acceded & abdicated
1936 – Spring Nazis remilatirize Rhineland in violation of Versailles Treaty neither Britain nor France respond
1936-1938 – Spanish Civil War 1936-1952 – George VI King of England (Windsor)
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1937 (Spring) – Simone Weil experiences religious ecstasy in same church in which Saint Francis of Assisi prayed, leads her to pray for first time in her life, has another, more powerful, revelation year later. From 1938 on, writings become more mystical without losing focus on social & political issues
1937–1940 – Neville Chamberlain PM of Britain
1938 – Munich Agreement signed with Hitler after which Chamberlaine promised “peace for our time”
1938 (Nov. 16) – Thomas Merton baptized at Corpus Christi Church, Manhattan
1939 (April) – Gurdjieff finishes All and Everything
1939 (Sept 1) – Germany invades Poland begin WWII: Germany, Italy, Japan vs. France, Britain, US, Canada, Russia
1939–1945 – In WWII six million Jews in Europe put to death, 40 million military & civilian deaths
1940 – Taize community founded in Burgundy 1940’s – Communists take power in Eastern Europe 1940 (April) – Germany attacks Denmark & Norway 1940 (May) – Churchill (aged 65) becomes PM of England 1940 (May 10) – Germany invades Belgium, Luxembourg & Netherlands 1940 (May) – 335,000 Allied troops evacuate from Dunkirk 1940 (June 14) – Nazis enter Paris, (June 23) Hitler (age 51) arrives in Paris 1940 (Aug 15) – German bombing of London begins 1940 (Sep. 6) – Luftwaffe drops over 4 million pounds of bombs on London Docks 1940-45 – (& ’51-’55) – Winston Churchill PM of Britain 1941 (Spring) – Germans conduct first round-up of Dutch Jews 1941 (June 22) – Germans begin invasion of Soviet Union, Stalin fails to respond 1941 (Dec. 7) – Japanese bomb naval base at Pearl Harbor, US enters WWII
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1941 (Dec. 10) – Thomas Merton enters Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance at the Abbey of Our Lady of Gethsemani, Kentucky
1942 (Winter) – German troops freezing & starving in Russia
1942 (Nov 8) – Operation Torch, Allied forces land in North Africa from where launch invasion of Southern Europe
1943 (Jan 31) – Hitler’s Sixth Army defeated at Stalingrad
1943 – first meeting of “The Big Three” Churchill, Stalin & Roosevelt in Tehran, Iran
1944 (May) – Rene Daumal d. (age 36)
1944 (June 6) – Operation Overboard (D-Day) cross channel invasion of France begins at Normandy
1944 (Friday August 25) – Charles de Gaulle enters Paris following liberation of France – 40,000 French men & women murdered by countrymen
1945 – Nag Hammadi Library discovered in Egypt 1945 – Nazis execute Dietrich Bonhoeffer days before Allied liberation 1945 (April 30) – Hitler commits suicide 1945 (May 7) – Germany surrenders 1945 (Aug 6) – U.S. drops atomic bomb (“Little Boy”) on Hiroshima (c. 140,000 d.) 1945 (Aug 9) – U.S. drops atomic bomb (“Fat Man”) on Nagasaki (c. 74,000 d.) 1945 (Aug 15) – Japan announces surrender to Allied powers 1945 (Sept 2) – Japan signs Instrument of Surrender officially ending WWII 1945 – formation of UN
1946-1952 – Revised Standard Version written as revision of ASV “based on consonantal Hebrew text” for OT & best available texts for NT, in response to changes in English usage
1947 (March 12) – in speech to Congress President Truman separates world into “free peoples” & those of “terror & oppression” – beginning Cold War. US starts funnelling aid to France in fight against Ho Chi Minh for control of Vietnam
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1947 – independence of India & Pakistan
1948 (Jan 30) – assassination of Mahatma Ghandi
1948 – Israel becomes nation, partition of Palestine, Arab – Israeli War
1948 – formation of World Council of Churches
1949 – Peoples’ Republic of China founded under Communist rule
1949 – Billy Graham begins evangelistic work
1949 (Oct 29) – Gurdjieff d. (aged 77)
1949 – Discovery of Qumran (Essene?) scrolls, aka Dead Sea scrolls
1950 – Tensin Gyatso becomes 14th Dalai Lama, China invades Tibet & suppresses Buddhism
1950 – Papal encyclical Humani generis
1950-1953 – Korean War
1950-1954 – U.S. sends more than $4 billion in aid for France’s war on Vietnam
1952 – ? Elizabeth I Queen of England (Windsor)
1953 – U.S. overthrows PM Mossadeq of Iran & installs Shah as dictator
1954 – U.S. overthrows democratically elected President Arbenz of Guatemala (200,000 civilians killed)
1955 – Church of England in Canada becomes the “Anglican Church of Canada”
1956 – Christianity Today begins publication
1956 – fearing communist win, South Vietnamese Premier Diem & U.S. back elections aimed at reuniting South Vietnam
1957 – United Church of Christ founded by ecumenical union of Evangelical & Reformed Christians with Congregationalists; comprised of both Calvinists & Lutherans
1958-1963 – Pope John XXIII 1959 – Dalai Lama goes into exile
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1959 – Fidel Castro leads revolution in Cuba
1959 – Ho Chi Minh trail established by communists as military route to South Vietnam
1960 – birth control pill approved by FDA
1961 – first human in space
1961 (May 15) – Papal encyclical Mater et Magistra on “Christianity & Social Progress”
1961 – Berlin Wall built
1961 (Aug) – Anglican Church of Canada ratifies 1959 Canadian Book of Common Prayer
1961-1962 – President Kennedy authorizes drastic increase in military advisors in Vietnam – within year, 9,000 advisors assisting South Vietnamese fighting communists. Agent Orange used to defoliate countryside
1962-1965 – Second Vatican Council, 21st ecumenical council, called by Pope John XXIII in 1959, produced 16 documents which became official after approval by the Pope, purpose to renew “ourselves & the flocks committed to us” (Pope John XXIII)
1963 – Buddhist monks self- immolate on streets of Saigon protesting religious persecution in South Vietnam – with U.S. approval South Vietnamese military stages coup murdering Premier Deem & his brothers
1963 (Aug. 28) – Martin Luther King Jr. “I have a dream” speech at Lincoln Memorial Washington, D.C.
1963 (Nov. 22) – President John F. Kennedy assassinated
1963-1978 – Pope Paul VI
1964 (Aug 2) – North Vietnam attacks U.S. warship in Gulf of Tonkin. U.S. Congress gives President broad powers to wage war, in 3 years over 180,000 civilians die
1964-1973 – US involvement in Vietnam War
1965 – Martin Buber d.
1965 (Jan) – President Johnson initiates Operation Rolling Thunder series of bombing raises against N. Vietnam
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1966 – creation state of Punjab in India partially controlled by Sikhs, contains Amritsar, holy city
1966 – RSV Catholic Edition, joint effort between Catholics & the Church of England, published, represents big step towards common Catholic/Protestant Bible
1967 – Six Day Arab – Israeli War reunites Jerusalem
1968 – papal encyclical Humanae Vitae reaffirms traditional teaching on abortion & birth control
1968 (April 4) – Martin Luther King, Jr. assassinated 1968 (Dec. 10) – Thomas Merton dies Bangkok, Thailand 1969 (July 20) – Neil Armstrong first man on moon
1969 – President Nixon begins secret bombing raids into Cambodia, neutral country used by North Vietnam to infiltrate south, resulting destabilization of country leads to genocidal Cambodian dictatorship under Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot, murdered millions of own people
1970 (May 4) – anti-War protestor at Kent State University & Jackson State University shot & killed by U.S. National Guard
1971 – Intel introduces the microprocessor 1971 (Jan 29) – National Executive Council of Anglican Church of Canada agrees to
begin process of revision of 1959 Book of Common Prayer 1971 – New American Standard Bible written, updating ASV using recent Hebrew &
Greek textual discoveries
1971 (June) – Nixon announces withdrawal of 100,000 troops from Vietnam
1973 (Jan 27) – Paris Peace Accord formally recognizes sovereignty of both North & South Vietnam & withdrawal of all American troops by March 29
1973 – Roe v. Wade 1973 – General Synod of Anglican Church of Canada approves ordination of women to
priesthood
1973 (Sept 11) – U.S. stages coup in Chile, democratically elected President Salvator Allende assassinated, dictator Augusto Pinochet installed, 5,000 Chileans die
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1974 – 11 women illegally ordained priests at Church of the Advocate, Philadelphia
1974 (Aug. 26) – Charles Lindbergh d.
1975 – Communist Khmer Rouge reach Phnom Penh in Cambodia & take power under Pol Pot killing between 1.7 & 3 million Cambodians
1975 – first women ordained priests in Canada
1975 (April 30) – last Americans evacuate Saigon as North Vietnamese roll into capital, war finished nearly 30 years after Ho Chi Minh declared independence from Vietnam which is now united under communist government 58,015 Americans died, over 1 1⁄2 million Vietnamese died
1976 (July 2) – North & South Vietnam united under Communist rule as Socialist Republic of Vietnam
1976 (Sept 9) – death of Mao Tse-Tung
1977 – U.S. backs military rulers of El Salvador – 70,000 Salvadorans die, 4 American nuns die
1978 – New International Version published uses eclectic Greek text, Massoretic Hebrew text, & current English style.
1978 – Polish Cardinal Karol Wojtyla becomes Pope John Paul II, first non-Italian Pope in 455 years, 263rd successor to St. Peter
1979 – Mother Teresa receives Nobel Prize
1979 – Islamic Republic proclaimed in Iran
1979-1982 – New King James Bible, complete revision of 1611 KJV, updates archaisms while retaining style
1980’s – U.S. trains Osama bin Laden & fellow terrorists to kill Soviets, CIA gives them $3 billion
1980-1988 – Iran-Iraq War 1981 – Sri Nisgaradatta Maharaj d. (aged 84) 1981 – Regan administration trains & funds “contras” in Nicaragua – 30,000 Nicaraguans die 1984 – Italy ends Roman Catholicism as state religion
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1985 – The Book of Alternative Services published in Anglican Church of Canada 1987 – White House secretly gives Iran weapons to kill Iraqis 1989 – Berlin wall comes down
1989 – CIA agent Manuel Noriega (also serving as President of Panama) disobeys orders from Washington, U.S. invades Panama, removes Noriega – 3,000 Panamanian civilians die
1990 – Iraq invades Kuwait with weapons from U.S.
1991 – U.S. enters Iraq – U.S. reinstates dictator of Kuwait
1991-2003 – U.S. planes bomb Iraq on weekly basis. UN estimates 500,000 Iraqi children die from bombing & sanctions
1992 – Church of England allows ordination of women priests
1994 (Oct) – Belgian homeopathic preacher Luc Jouret leads cult of roughly 50 followers to their deaths in Canada & Switzerland
late 1990’s – Taliban come to power in Afghanistan 1997 – birth of internet 1998 – Clinton bombs “weapons” factory in Sudan, turns out to be making aspirins
2000 – Pope John Paul II offers apology & asks forgiveness for Catholicism’s history of “violence in the service of truth”
2000 – Christianity is the world’s largest religion, more than two billion members belonging to more than 20,000 sects & denominations
2000-2001 – U.S. gives Taliban-ruled Afghanistan $245 million in “aid”
2001 (Sept 11) – Osama bin Laden uses expert CIA training to bomb World Trade Centre in NY
2001 – U.S. invades Afghanistan 2003 – U.S. invades Iraq & overthrows Saddam Hussein
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APPENDIX ONE THE STORY OF THE HEBREW SCRIPTURES
In the beginning God created everything that is and all that God created was good. Human beings were also created good. Among all of God’s creation human beings were created uniquely in the image of God.
Through the exercise of human free will, a tragic flaw entered into God’s perfect creation. Human beings lost heir awareness of God’s presence and began living as if God were absent. Human beings forgot that they were created in the image of God and began to seek satisfaction and fulfillment in things that are not God.
The chaos that followed from humans living as if God were not present is symbolized in a terrible flood from which God graciously rescued humans and animals. After this flood God chose to enter into a relationship of faithfulness with humanity.
After a remnant of humanity was rescued from the terrible consequences of the flaw within human nature, all people were scattered across the earth from the tower of Babel. Human language was confused and human community disintegrated.
This disruption of human community began to be reversed in the story of a man named Abraham who may have lived around 2000 BCE. Abraham was called by God to leave his home. This call was accompanied by the promise that Abraham would become the father of a great nation.
This promise of restoration began to be fulfilled in Abraham’s descendents: Isaac and Jacob. During Jacob’s life, the Hebrew people settled in Egypt to avoid the famine that was afflicting the land. In Egypt, Jacob’s son, Joseph became a powerful ruler. Over many years in Egypt the Hebrew people grew to such a great number that the Egyptians began to fear them and eventually enslaved them.
After Abraham’s descendents had suffered under Egyptian oppression for generations, God raised up Moses to lead the people out of Egypt. God promised to bring them to a land in which they could settle and prosper. For forty years, the people wandered in the wilderness on the border of the land God had promised to them. During this time, God gave Moses the law to be their guide. Moses taught the people in the wilderness saying, “you are a people holy to the Lord your God; it is you the Lord has chosen out of all the peoples on earth to be his people, his treasured possession.”
(Deuteronomy 14:2)
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This status as God’s chosen people gave the Hebrews a fundamental confidence in God. They believed that God would always be faithful to them – “Know therefore that the Lord your God is God, the faithful God who maintains covenant loyalty with those who love him and keep his commandments, to a thousand generations.” (Deut. 7:9)
About 1200 years before Jesus, Joshua led the Hebrew people into the land of Canaan. After a bloody conquest, they established themselves as occupiers of the land. At first Israel was governed by a succession of 14 Judges, the last of whom was Samuel. Then, under the three kings: Saul, David (1012-972 BCE), and Solomon, Israel became increasingly established as a nation in Canaan. An elaborate system of religious ritual was developed, centred around the magnificent first Temple built by King Solomon in Jerusalem around 960 BCE.
After King Solomon, the Jewish kingdom was divided in two (930 BCE): Judah, of the line of David, in the South (traditionally one tribe) with its capital in Jerusalem and rebellious Israel (traditionally ten tribes) with its capital in Samaria in the North. During this time of internal division, prophets were raised up igniting the great Hebrew prophetic movement in Israel (750-550 BCE). In the face of terrible military threat from surrounding nations, the prophets encouraged the people of Israel to remain faithful to God and to put their trust in God rather than in political alliances, weapons of war, or the foreign gods of Canaan. Sometimes the people listened to the prophets and trusted in God; at other times they put their trust in human means with disastrous results.
The prophets reminded the people of God’s faithfulness. In the words of Jeremiah, God spoke to the people saying, “Only if I had not established my covenant with day and night and the ordinances of heaven and earth, would I reject the offspring of Jacob and of my servant David and not choose any of his descendents as rulers over the offspring of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes, and will have mercy upon them.” (Jeremiah 33:25,26)
After 19 bad rulers, the Northern kingdom of Israel was destroyed by Assyria and the Jews of the North were scattered (722-720), never again to form a nation. In the South, after 20 kings, Judah was destroyed by the Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE and most of the Jews from the South were taken captive. The great Temple of Solomon was destroyed. This was a time of profound and painful crisis for the Jews.
After 50 years in exile, the Jews of the South returned to their land in three stages. Their hope to be a great people began to be restored. They attempted for about 150 years to rebuild the temple and to restore their former glory, but with little success.
This brings the story to the year 400 BCE, the end of the story contained in that part of the Bible which we know as “The Old Testament.”
For 400 years nothing is recorded in the Bible of the fate of the Jewish people. These years are known as “the silent years.”
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APPENDIX II THE STORY OF JESUS AND HIS FOLLOWERS
After four hundred years of “silence,” in an obscure corner of the Jewish nation, a boy was born. His name was Jesus.
At the time of Jesus’ birth, Israel was an occupied nation. The people of Israel were living under the rule of the mighty Roman Empire.
The name Jesus means “Saviour.” It is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Joshua. Around the time Jesus turned 30, people began to place their hopes in him that he might be a modern day Joshua, able to return to Israel the promised land which they believed God had given them. The life of Jesus proved to be a desperate disappointment to these aspirations, and eventually those who had hoped Jesus might be their saviour called for his death, and he was executed for sedition against the Roman Empire.
After Jesus’ death, strange rumours began to circulate that he had been seen again. Eventually, the tiny group who had been Jesus’ disciples during his ministry began to teach that they had experienced Jesus’ living presence and received from him the gift of new life. From this message of Good News, the Christian Church eventually emerged and became the dominant religious culture of the Roman Empire.
In the Christian community that we call “the Church,” the effects of the fall which began our story are intended by God to be reversed. Barriers are broken down. Human community is restored. God calls us to live together in peace and harmony across all boundaries and divisions.
The New Testament contains the stories of Jesus in four Gospels. The story of the early church is recounted in the Acts of the Apostles. A series of letters, known as “Epistles” written to early churches encourage believers to fulfill their destiny as God’s reconciling community.
